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*Physics Prelims (1-7).qxd 12/11/08 1:00 PM Page 1 SCIENCE VISUAL RESOURCES PHYSIC S An Illustrated Guide to Science The Diagram Group *Physics Prelims (1-7).qxd 12/11/08 1:00 PM Page 2 Physics: An Illustrated Guide to Science Copyright © 2006 The Diagram Group Author: Derek McMonagle BSc PhD CSci CChem FRSC Editors: Catherine Gaunt, Jamie Stokes Design: Anthony Atherton, Richard Hummerstone, Lee Lawrence, Tim Noel-Johnson, Phil Richardson Illustration: Peter Wilkinson Picture research: Neil McKenna Indexer: Martin Hargreaves All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Chelsea House An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 For Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, please contact the Publisher ISBN 0-8160-6167-X Chelsea House books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at 212/967-8800 or 800/322-8755. You can find Chelsea House on the World Wide Web at http://www.chelseahouse.com Printed in China CP Diagram 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 This book is printed on acid-free paper. *Physics Prelims (1-7).qxd 12/11/08 1:00 PM Page 3 Introduction Physics is one of eight volumes in the Science Visual Resources set. It contains five sections, a comprehensive glossary, a Web site guide, and an index. Physics is a learning tool for students and teachers. Full-color diagrams, graphs, charts, and maps on every page illustrate the essential elements of the subject, while parallel text provides key definitions and step-by-step explanations. Forces and energy provides an overview of the fundamental forces and the basic forms of energy. This section discusses Newton’s laws of motion, gravity, simple machines, and the relationship between energy and forces. Conduction, convection, and radiation are also explained as well as energy changes. Waves, sound, and light explores the transfer of energy through waves. Superposition, interference, diffraction, reflection, and refraction are described in this section. The behavior of sound, light, and other electromagnetic waves is examined in detail. Other subjects covered in this section include seismic waves, noise and decibel ratings, the velocity of light, and the principles of lenses and other optical instruments. Electricity is concerned with the phenomena associated with electrons and protons that are stationary or moving. The theories of electrostatics, electric current, and electromagnetism are the principal themes of this section. Practical applications such as the generation of electricity, AC and DC electric motors, and radio and television are also considered. Electronics focuses on systems that function by directing or controlling the flow of electricity. The principles of electronic circuitry are the main theme of this section. There are expositions of Boolean algebra, combinational logic, and sequential logic, as well as detailed descriptions of electronic elements such as transistors, diodes, counting circuits, operational amplifiers, and rectifier circuits. Units and measurements is a short section that gives details of the international system of units and measurements (commonly known as SI units) used by physicists and other scientists. *Physics Prelims (1-7).qxd 12/11/08 1:00 PM Page 4 Contents 1 FORCES AND ENERGY 8 Newton’s first law of 26 Temperature scales motion 27 Thermal conduction 1 9 Newton’s second law of 28 Thermal conduction 2 motion 29 Thermal radiation 1 10 Newton’s third law of 30 Thermal radiation 2 motion 31 Convection 1 11 Nature of forces 32 Convection 2 12 Adding forces 33 Energy changes 1 13 Turning effect of a force 34 Energy changes 2 14 Momentum 35 Energy production and 15 The gravitational force distribution 16 Free fall and terminal 36 Reducing energy losses velocity from houses 17 Center of gravity and 37 Energy from the Sun stability 38 Solar energy devices 18 Energy and forces 39 A typical power station 19 Simple machines 1 40 Non-renewable energy 20 Simple machines 2 sources 21 More complicated 41 Renewable energy sources machines 1 42 Alternative energy 22 More complicated sources 1 machines 2 43 Alternative energy 23 Lift pump and force pump sources 2 24 Distinction between heat 44 Alternative energy and work sources 3 25 Heat and temperature 45 Nuclear energy 2 WAVES, SOUND, AND LIGHT 46 Describing waves 51 The principle of 47 Huygen’s construction 1 superposition 3 48 Huygen’s construction 2 52 Stationary waves 49 The principle of 53 Sound waves 1 superposition 1 54 Sound waves 2 50 The principle of 55 Sound waves 3 superposition 2 56 Water waves *Physics Prelims (1-7).qxd 12/11/08 1:00 PM Page 5 57 Seismic waves 1 78 Polarization 2 58 Seismic waves 2 79 Measurement of the 59 Musical notes velocity of light 60 Vibrating strings 80 Electromagnetic 61 Vibrating columns of air spectrum 1 62 Resonance 81 Electromagnetic 63 Scales spectrum 2 64 The human ear 82 Infrared 65 Audio range 83 Absorption and 66 Infrasound and scattering ultrasound 84 Dispersion 67 Noise and decibel 85 Reflection 1 ratings 86 Reflection 2 68 Measurement of the 87 Reflection 3 speed of sound 1 88 Reflection 4 69 Measurement of the 89 Reflection 5 speed of sound 2 90 Refraction 1 70 Interference of two 91 Refraction 2 beams of light 1 92 Refraction 3 71 Interference of two 93 The human eye beams of light 2 94 Defects of vision 72 Interference involving 95 Lenses 1 multiple reflections 96 Lenses 2 73 Diffraction at a single slit 97 Lenses 3 74 Diffraction at a double 98 Color slit 99 Color mixing 75 Diffraction grating 100 Optical instruments 1 76 Resolving power 101 Optical instruments 2 77 Polarization 1 102 Lasers 3 ELECTRICITY 103 Electric charge 108 Applications of 104 The electroscope electrostatics 3 105 Charging by induction 109 Applications of 106 Applications of electrostatics 4 electrostatics 1 110 Problems created by 107 Applications of electrostatic charge electrostatics 2 111 Capacitance *Physics Prelims (1-7).qxd 12/11/08 1:00 PM Page 6 112 Practical capacitors 138 Forces in magnetic 113 Color coding and size fields 2 114 Electric fields 139 Electromagnets 1 115 Electric fields and Gauss’s 140 Electromagnets 2 theorem 141 Electromagnetic 116 Electric current 1 induction 1 117 Electric current 2 142 Electromagnetic 118 Electric current 3 induction 2 119 Electric current 4 143 Generating electric 120 Electric current 5 power 121 Ohm’s law 144 The DC electric motor 122 Electric meters 1 145 Transformer-induced 123 Electric meters 2 e.m.f.s 1 124 Resistors 1 146 Transformer-induced 125 Resistors 2 e.m.f.s 2 126 Electromotive force 147 AC electric motors 1 127 Applications of the 148 AC electric motors 2 Wheatstone network 1 149 Electric power 128 Applications of the transmission 1 Wheatstone network 2 150 Electric power 129 Electric power transmission 2 130 Electric lighting 151 Transients: capacitor 131 Electrolysis 152 Transients: inductor 132 Magnetic fields of 153 Radio magnets 154 Television 133 Magnetic fields due to an 155 AC theory 1 electric current 1 156 AC theory 2 134 Magnetic fields due to an 157 R.C. network 1: AC electric current 2 response 135 Magnetic field of Earth 1 158 R.C. network 2: AC 136 Magnetic field of Earth 2 response 137 Forces in magnetic 159 Electricity in the car fields 1 4 ELECTRONICS 160 Circuit symbols 1 164 Transistors 161 Circuit symbols 2 165 Integrated circuits 162 Circuit symbols 3 166 Logic gates and their 163 Semiconductor diodes truth tables *Physics Prelims (1-7).qxd 12/11/08 1:00 PM Page 7 167 NAND equivalents 175 Clocked logic 168 NOR equivalents 176 Examples of clocked 169 CMOS chips showing pin logic connections 177 Counting circuits 1 170 Boolean algebra 178 Counting circuits 2 171 Combinational logic 179 Operational amplifiers 1 design 1 180 Operational amplifiers 2 172 Combinational logic 181 Operational amplifiers 3 design 2 182 Operational amplifiers 4 173 Sequential logic 1: the 183 Operational amplifiers 5 bistable 184 Rectifier circuits 174 Sequential logic 2: 185 The microprocessor examples using the 186 Analog and digital signals bistable 187 ASCII code 5 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS 188 Function and scaling 194 Addition and subtraction 189 Motion in a straight of vectors 2 line 195 The international system 190 Instantaneous velocity 1 of units: base units 191 Instantaneous velocity 2 196 The international system 192 Instantaneous velocity of units: derived units and acceleration 197 The international system 193 Addition and subtraction of units: symbols and of vectors 1 conventions APPENDIXES 198 Key words 205 Internet resources 207 Index *01 Forces&Energy (8-45).qxd 12/11/08 2:10 PM Page 8 8 Newton’s first law of FORCES AND ENERGY motion Key words force friction gravity 1 Effect of friction inertia mass Newton’s first law ●Newton’s first law of motion states that an object will remain at rest or, if it is moving it will continue to move at a constant speed in the same direction, unless it is acted on by an external force. This might be a single force or the resultant of two or more unbalanced forces. 1 Effect of friction ●When the engine of a car is switched off, the car will eventually come to rest because friction and air resistance act 2 Absence of friction on the car to slow it down. If these forces were absent the car would continue with a constant speed in a straight line. 2 Absence of friction ●In space there is no air. Once a rocket has escaped the gravitationalpull of Earth it will continue to move with a constant speed in a straight line forever without needing any additional thrust from its engines. 3 Inertia ●All matter has an inbuilt opposition to being moved or, if it is moving, to having its motion changed. This property is called inertia. 3 Inertia ●When the piece of card is flicked sharply it moves in the opposite direction to the flick but the coin coin card remains where it is. ●The greater the massof an object the greater its inertia. The greater its inertia, the more difficult it is to move when it is at rest and the more difficult it is to stop when it is in moving. d. Lt ●Inertia provides a definition of mass. n matio The mass of a body is a measure of its or inertia. nf ual I Vis m a Diagr © *01 Forces&Energy (8-45).qxd 12/11/08 2:10 PM Page 9 9 Newton’s second law of FORCES AND ENERGY motion Key words acceleration momentum 1 Equipment and method velocity elastic band kept at to constant extension ticker-timer Newton’s second law ●Newton’s second law of motion states that an external resultant force changes the motion of an object in such a way that the rate of change of the object’s momentumis proportional to the force, and in the same direction. ●This law may be expressed mathematically in two ways: Force is applied to trolley Doubling the force force = mass x acceleration (F = ma) impulse = change of momentum 2 Typical result 3 Velocity/time graph 1 Equipment and method ticker-tape ●The paper strip attached to the trolley 40 160 14 passes through a ticker-timer which places a dot on the paper at regular time intervals. ●Exert a steady force on the elastic 140 band in the direction shown. 12 ) m c 2 Typical result n e (i ● As the trolley accelerates, the distance nc 120 between adjacent dots on the tape a st 10 increases. The distance traveled by the Di trolley can be plotted on a graph. 100 ) 3 Velocity/time graph k c 30 r ti 8 ● The trolley’s velocity(v)equals the pe distance traveled (d)divided by the m time (t). v=d/t 80 c n ●As the ticker-timer places dots on the (i y paper at regular time intervals, the ocit 6 trolley’s velocity at any point equals el 60 V the distance traveled per dot. ● The acceleration(a)of the trolley equals its velocity divided by time. 4 a=v/t 20 40 ●The velocity time graph is a straight line indicating that acceleration is uniform. The trolley’s acceleration is d. 2 given by the gradient of the graph. n Lt 20 ● Study the effect of increased force by matio increasing the number of elastic or 10 bands used in the experiment. With ual Inf increased force, the gradient of the Vis 0 00 10 20 30 40 00 10 20 30 40 50 graph increases, showing that the am number of ticks Time (in equal units of time) Time (in equal units of time) force is proportional to the Diagr acceleration. ©