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Satellite Communications Systems Engineering. Atmospheric Effects, Satellite Link Design and System Performance PDF

458 Pages·2017·21.544 MB·English
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(cid:2) SatelliteCommunicationsSystemsEngineering (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) (cid:2) Satellite Communications Systems Engineering AtmosphericEffects,SatelliteLinkDesignandSystemPerformance LouisJ.Ippolito,Jr. EngineeringConsultantandAdjunctProfessor, (cid:2) TheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity, (cid:2) WashingtonDC,USA SecondEdition (cid:2) (cid:2) Thiseditionfirstpublished2017 ©2017JohnWiley&SonsLtd Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,or transmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise, exceptaspermittedbylaw.Adviceonhowtoobtainpermisiontoreusematerialfromthistitleisavailableat http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. TherightofLouisJ.Ippolito,Jr.tobeidentifiedastheauthorofthisworkhasbeenassertedinaccordance withlaw. RegisteredOffices JohnWiley&SonsLtd,TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,WestSussex,PO198SQ,UK EditorialOffice (cid:2) (cid:2) TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,WestSussex,PO198SQ,UK Fordetailsofourglobaleditorialoffices,customerservices,andmoreinformationaboutWileyproducts visitusatwww.wiley.com. Wileyalsopublishesitsbooksinavarietyofelectronicformatsandbyprint-on-demand.Somecontentthat appearsinstandardprintversionsofthisbookmaynotbeavailableinotherformats. LimitofLiability/DisclaimerofWarranty Whilethepublisherandauthorshaveusedtheirbesteffortsinpreparingthisbook,theymakeno representationsorwarrantieswithrespecttotheaccuracyorcompletenessofthecontentsofthisbookand specificallydisclaimanyimpliedwarrantiesofmerchantabilityorfitnessforaparticularpurpose.No warrantymaybecreatedorextendedbysalesrepresentativesorwrittensalesmaterials.Theadviceand strategiescontainedhereinmaynotbesuitableforyoursituation.Youshouldconsultwithaprofessional whereappropriate.Neitherthepublishernorauthorsshallbeliableforanylossofprofitoranyother commercialdamages,includingbutnotlimitedtospecial,incidental,consequential,orotherdamages. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataappliedfor ISBN:9781119259374 Coverimage:Jeff_Hu/Gettyimages;ILYAGENKIN/Shutterstock CoverdesignbyWiley AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. Setin10/12ptWarnockbySPiGlobal,Chennai,India 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 (cid:2) (cid:2) v Contents ListofAcronyms xiii PrefacetoSecondEdition xix 1 IntroductiontoSatelliteCommunications 1 1.1 EarlyHistoryofSatelliteCommunications 3 1.1.1 SCORE 3 1.1.2 ECHO 3 1.1.3 COURIER 4 1.1.4 WESTFORD 4 1.1.5 TELSTAR 4 (cid:2) 1.1.6 RELAY 4 (cid:2) 1.1.7 SYNCOM 5 1.1.8 EARLYBIRD 5 1.1.9 APPLICATIONSTECHNOLOGYSATELLITE-1,ATS-1 5 1.1.10 ATS-3 5 1.1.11 ATS-5 6 1.1.12 ANIKA 6 1.1.13 ATS-6 6 1.1.14 CTS 8 1.2 SomeBasicCommunicationsSatelliteSystemDefinitions 9 1.2.1 SatelliteCommunicationsSegments 9 1.2.1.1 SpaceSegment 9 1.2.1.2 GroundSegment 9 1.2.2 SatelliteLinkParameters 10 1.2.3 SatelliteOrbits 11 1.2.3.1 GeosynchronousOrbit(GSOorGEO) 11 1.2.3.2 LowEarthOrbit(LEO) 12 1.2.3.3 MediumEarthOrbit(MEO) 12 1.2.3.4 HighEarthOrbit(HEO) 12 1.2.4 FrequencyBandDesignations 13 1.3 OverviewofBookStructureandTopics 13 References 15 (cid:2) (cid:2) vi Contents 2 SatelliteOrbits 17 2.1 Kepler’sLaws 18 2.2 OrbitalParameters 19 2.3 OrbitsinCommonUse 22 2.3.1 GeostationaryOrbit 23 2.3.2 LowEarthOrbit 25 2.3.3 MediumEarthOrbit 26 2.3.4 HighlyEllipticalOrbit 26 2.3.5 PolarOrbit 27 2.4 GeometryofGSOLinks 27 2.4.1 RangetoSatellite 29 2.4.2 ElevationAngletoSatellite 29 2.4.3 AzimuthAngletoSatellite 30 2.4.4 SampleCalculation 31 References 33 Problems 33 3 SatelliteSubsystems 35 3.1 SatelliteBus 36 3.1.1 PhysicalStructure 37 3.1.1.1 SpinStabilization 37 3.1.1.2 Three-AxisStabilization 38 (cid:2) 3.1.2 PowerSubsystem 38 (cid:2) 3.1.3 AttitudeControl 39 3.1.4 OrbitalControl 39 3.1.5 ThermalControl 41 3.1.6 ElectronicPropulsionSatellites 42 3.1.7 Tracking,Telemetry,Command,andMonitoring 43 3.2 SatellitePayload 45 3.2.1 Transponder 45 3.2.1.1 FrequencyTranslationTransponder 45 3.2.1.2 On-BoardProcessingTransponder 46 3.2.2 Antennas 47 References 48 4 TheRFLink 49 4.1 TransmissionFundamentals 49 4.1.1 EffectiveIsotropicRadiatedPower 51 4.1.2 PowerFluxDensity 51 4.1.3 AntennaGain 52 4.1.3.1 CircularParabolicReflectorAntenna 53 4.1.3.2 Beamwidth 53 4.1.4 Free-SpacePathLoss 55 4.1.5 BasicLinkEquationforReceivedPower 56 4.1.5.1 SampleCalculationforKu-BandLink 57 4.2 SystemNoise 59 4.2.1 NoiseFigure 61 4.2.2 NoiseTemperature 63 (cid:2) (cid:2) Contents vii 4.2.2.1 ActiveDevices 63 4.2.2.2 PassiveDevices 64 4.2.2.3 ReceiverAntennaNoise 65 4.2.3 SystemNoiseTemperature 66 4.2.3.1 SampleCalculationforSystemNoiseTemperature 68 4.2.4 FigureofMerit 69 4.3 LinkPerformanceParameters 70 4.3.1 Carrier-to-NoiseRatio 70 4.3.2 Carrier-to-NoiseDensity 72 4.3.3 Energy-per-BittoNoiseDensity 72 Reference 73 Problems 73 5 LinkSystemPerformance 75 5.1 LinkConsiderations 75 5.1.1 FixedAntennaSizeLink 76 5.1.2 FixedAntennaGainLink 77 5.1.3 FixedAntennaGain,FixedAntennaSizeLink 77 5.2 Uplink 79 5.2.1 MultipleCarrierOperation 81 5.3 Downlink 81 5.4 PercentofTimePerformanceSpecifications 82 (cid:2) References 84 (cid:2) Problems 85 6 TransmissionImpairments 87 6.1 RadiowaveFrequencyandSpaceCommunications 87 6.2 RadiowavePropagationMechanisms 89 6.2.1 Absorption 90 6.2.2 Scattering 90 6.2.3 Refraction 90 6.2.4 Diffraction 90 6.2.5 Multipath 90 6.2.6 Scintillation 90 6.2.7 Fading 90 6.2.8 FrequencyDispersion 90 6.3 PropagationBelowAbout3GHz 92 6.3.1 IonosphericScintillation 95 6.3.2 PolarizationRotation 97 6.3.3 GroupDelay 98 6.3.4 Dispersion 99 6.4 PropagationAboveAbout3GHz 100 6.4.1 RainAttenuation 101 6.4.1.1 SpatialStructureofRain 101 6.4.1.2 ClassicalDescriptionforRainAttenuation 102 6.4.1.3 AttenuationandRainRate 104 6.4.2 GaseousAttenuation 105 6.4.3 CloudandFogAttenuation 107 (cid:2) (cid:2) viii Contents 6.4.3.1 SpecificAttenuationforClouds 107 6.4.3.2 TotalCloudAttenuation 108 6.4.4 Depolarization 108 6.4.4.1 RainDepolarization 110 6.4.4.2 IceDepolarization 113 6.4.5 TroposphericScintillation 114 6.4.5.1 ScintillationParameters 116 6.4.5.2 AmplitudeScintillationMeasurements 116 6.5 RadioNoise 117 6.5.1 SpecificationofRadioNoise 119 6.5.2 NoiseFromAtmosphericGases 121 6.5.3 SkyNoiseDueToRain 124 6.5.4 SkyNoiseDuetoClouds 125 6.5.5 NoiseFromExtra-TerrestrialSources 126 6.5.5.1 CosmicBackgroundNoise 127 6.5.5.2 SolarNoise 131 6.5.5.3 LunarNoise 133 6.5.5.4 RadioStars 134 References 134 Problems 135 7 PropagationEffectsModelingandPrediction 138 (cid:2) 7.1 AtmosphericGases 138 (cid:2) 7.1.1 LeibeComplexRefractivityModel 139 7.1.2 ITU-RGaseousAttenuationModels 140 7.1.2.1 ITU-RLine-by-lineCalculation 140 7.1.2.2 ITU-RGaseousAttenuationApproximationMethod 145 7.2 CloudsandFog 152 7.2.1 ITU-RCloudAttenuationModel 153 7.2.2 SlobinCloudModel 155 7.3 RainAttenuation 162 7.3.1 ITU-RRainAttenuationModel 162 7.3.2 CraneRainAttenuationModels 176 7.3.2.1 CraneGlobalRainModel 177 7.3.2.2 CraneTwoComponentRainAttenuationModel 182 7.4 Depolarization 187 7.4.1 RainDepolarizationModeling 188 7.4.1.1 ITU-RDepolarizationModel 188 7.4.2 IceDepolarizationModeling 190 7.4.2.1 TsolakisandStutzmanT-MatrixModel 190 7.4.2.2 ITU-RIceDepolarizationEstimation 193 7.5 TroposphericScintillation 194 7.5.1 KarasawaScintillationModel 194 7.5.2 ITU-RScintillationModel 197 7.5.3 vandeCampCloudScintillationModel 199 References 201 Problems 203 (cid:2) (cid:2) Contents ix 8 RainFadeMitigation 205 8.1 PowerRestoralTechniques 205 8.1.1 BeamDiversity 206 8.1.2 PowerControl 207 8.1.2.1 UplinkPowerControl 208 8.1.2.2 DownlinkPowerControl 211 8.1.3 SiteDiversity 211 8.1.3.1 DiversityGainandDiversityImprovement 212 8.1.3.2 DiversitySystemDesignandPerformance 217 8.1.3.3 SiteDiversityProcessing 224 8.1.3.4 ConsiderationsWhenModelingSiteDiversity 225 8.1.4 OrbitDiversity 227 8.2 SignalModificationRestoralTechniques 229 8.2.1 FrequencyDiversity 230 8.2.2 BandwidthReduction 231 8.2.3 Time-DelayedTransmissionDiversity 231 8.2.4 AdaptiveCodingandModulation 231 8.3 Summary 232 References 232 Problems 233 9 TheCompositeLink 235 (cid:2) 9.1 FrequencyTranslation(FT)Satellite 236 (cid:2) 9.1.1 Uplink 236 9.1.2 Downlink 238 9.1.3 CompositeCarrier-to-NoiseRatio 238 9.1.3.1 Carrier-to-NoiseDensity 242 9.1.3.2 Energy-Per-BittoNoiseDensityRatio 242 9.1.4 PerformanceImplications 243 9.1.5 PathLossesandLinkPerformance 244 9.2 On-BoardProcessing(OBP)Satellite 248 9.2.1 OBPUplinkandDownlink 250 9.2.2 CompositeOBPPerformance 250 9.2.2.1 BinaryFSKLink 251 9.3 ComparisonofFTandOBPPerformance 252 9.4 IntermodulationNoise 255 9.5 LinkDesignSummary 257 References 258 Problems 258 10 SatelliteCommunicationsSignalProcessing 261 10.1 AnalogSystems 261 10.1.1 AnalogBasebandFormatting 262 10.1.2 AnalogSourceCombining 264 10.1.3 AnalogModulation 264 10.2 DigitalBasebandFormatting 270 10.2.1 PCMBandwidthRequirements 273 (cid:2) (cid:2) x Contents 10.2.2 NearlyInstantaneousCompanding(NIC) 273 10.2.3 AdaptiveDeltaModulation(ADM)orContinuouslyVariableSlopeDelta Modulation(CVSD) 273 10.2.4 AdaptiveDifferentialPCM(ADPCM) 274 10.3 DigitalSourceCombining 274 10.4 DigitalCarrierModulation 275 10.4.1 BinaryPhaseShiftKeying 278 10.4.2 QuadraturePhaseShiftKeying 280 10.4.3 HigherOrderPhaseModulation 283 10.5 Summary 283 Reference 284 Problems 284 11 SatelliteMultipleAccess 286 11.1 FrequencyDivisionMultipleAccess 289 11.1.1 PCM/TDM/PSK/FDMA 290 11.1.2 PCM/SCPC/PSK/FDMA 292 11.2 TimeDivisionMultipleAccess 293 11.2.1 PCM/TDM/PSK/TDMA 294 11.2.2 TDMAFrameEfficiency 295 11.2.2.1 SampleCalculationforFrameEfficiency 296 11.2.3 TDMACapacity 296 (cid:2) 11.2.3.1 SampleCalculationforChannelCapacity 298 (cid:2) 11.2.4 SatelliteSwitchedTDMA 299 11.3 CodeDivisionMultipleAccess 303 11.3.1 DirectSequenceSpreadSpectrum 306 11.3.2 FrequencyHoppingSpreadSpectrum 309 11.3.3 CDMAProcessingGain 310 11.3.4 CDMACapacity 312 11.3.4.1 SampleCalculationfortheCDMAChannelCapacity 313 References 314 Problems 314 12 TheMobileSatelliteChannel 316 12.1 MobileChannelPropagation 316 12.1.1 Reflection 317 12.1.2 Diffraction 318 12.1.3 Scattering 318 12.2 NarrowbandChannel 321 12.2.1 PathLossFactor 323 12.2.2 ShadowFading 327 12.2.2.1 EmpiricalRoadsideShadowingModel 328 12.2.2.2 ITU-RRoadsideBuildingShadowingModel 331 12.2.3 MultipathFading 333 12.2.3.1 MountainEnvironmentMultipathModel 338 12.2.3.2 RoadsideTreesMultipathModel 339 12.2.4 Blockage 340 (cid:2) (cid:2) Contents xi 12.2.4.1 ITU-RBuildingBlockageModel 340 12.2.4.2 HandHeldTerminalBlockage 344 12.2.5 MixedPropagationConditions 346 12.3 WidebandChannel 348 12.4 Multi-SatelliteMobileLinks 351 12.4.1 UncorrelatedFading 351 12.4.1.1 Multi-SatelliteGSONetwork 351 12.4.1.2 Multi-SatelliteNGSONetwork 352 12.4.2 CorrelatedFading 353 References 355 13 SpectrumManagementinSatelliteCommunications 357 13.1 SpectrumManagementFunctionsandActivities 357 13.1.1 InternationalSpectrumManagement 358 13.1.2 WorldRadiocommunicationConference(WRC) 361 13.1.3 FrequencyAllocationProcess 361 13.1.4 SpectrumManagementintheUnitedStates 365 13.1.4.1 FederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC) 366 13.1.4.2 NationalTelecommunicationsandInformationAdministration(NTIA) 366 13.1.4.3 FCCandNTIADuelOrganizationStructure 367 13.2 MethodsofRadioSpectrumSharing 368 13.2.1 FrequencySeparation 369 (cid:2) 13.2.2 SpatialSeparation 371 (cid:2) 13.2.3 TimeSeparation 372 13.2.4 SignalSeparation 372 13.3 SpectrumEfficiencyMetrics 372 13.3.1 SpectrumUtilizationFactor(U) 373 13.3.2 SpectrumUtilizationEfficiency(SUE) 373 References 374 Problems 374 14 InterferenceMitigationinSatelliteCommunications 376 14.1 InterferenceDesignations 376 14.2 ModesofInterferenceforSatelliteServicesNetworks 377 14.2.1 InterferenceBetweenSpaceandTerrestrialServicesSystems 377 14.2.2 InterferenceBetweenSpaceServicesNetworks 378 14.2.3 InterferenceBetweenSpaceServicesNetworkswithReverseBand Allocations 379 14.3 InterferencePropagationMechanisms 379 14.3.1 Line-of-SightInterference 381 14.3.2 Diffraction 382 14.3.3 TroposphericScatter 383 14.3.4 SurfaceDuctingandLayerReflection 383 14.3.5 Hydrometeor(Rain)Scatter 384 14.4 InterferenceandtheRFLink 386 14.4.1 SingleInterferer(pfd) 387 14.4.2 MultipleInterferers(epfd) 387 (cid:2)

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