Safety Design for Space Systems

988 Pages·2009·12.35 MB·English

by  Gary E. Musgrave Ph.D

Safety Design
for Space Systems
This page intentionally left blank
Safety Design
for Space Systems
Edited by
Gary Eugene Musgrave,
Ph.D.
Axel (Skip) M. Larsen
Tommaso Sgobba
Sponsored by
The International Association for the
Advancement of Space Safety
AMSTERDAM (cid:129) BOSTON (cid:129) HEIDELBERG (cid:129) LONDON
NEW YORK (cid:129) OXFORD (cid:129) PARIS (cid:129) SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO (cid:129) SINGAPORE (cid:129) SYDNEY (cid:129) TOKYO
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Contents
Preface...............................................................................................................................xxiii
Introduction........................................................................................................................xxv
About the Editors.............................................................................................................xxvii
About the Contributors....................................................................................................xxxi
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Space Safety................................................1
1.1 NASA and Safety..........................................................................................2
1.2 Definition of Safety and Risk......................................................................3
1.3 Managing Safety and Risk...........................................................................3
1.4 The Book.....................................................................................................5
References..........................................................................................................5
CHAPTER 2 The Space Environment: Natural and Induced.......................7
2.1 The Atmosphere..........................................................................................8
2.1.1 Composition......................................................................................8
2.1.2 Atomic Oxygen................................................................................13
2.1.3 The Ionosphere...............................................................................15
2.2 Orbital Debris and Meteoroids.................................................................18
2.2.1 Orbital Debris..................................................................................18
2.2.2 Meteoroids.......................................................................................26
2.3 Microgravity...............................................................................................31
2.3.1 Microgravity Defined.......................................................................31
2.3.2 Methods of Attainment...................................................................34
2.3.3 Effects on Biological Processes and Astronaut Health...................40
2.3.4 Unique Aspects of Travel to the Moon and
Planetary Bodies..............................................................................41
Recommended Reading...................................................................................41
2.4 Acoustics....................................................................................................43
2.4.1 Acoustics Safety Issues....................................................................43
2.4.2 Acoustic Requirements...................................................................43
2.4.3 Compliance and Verification...........................................................50
2.4.4 Conclusions and Recommendations...............................................51
Recommended Reading...................................................................................51
2.5 Radiation....................................................................................................52
2.5.1 Ionizing Radiation............................................................................52
2.5.2 Radio Frequency Radiation.............................................................67
Recommended Reading...................................................................................71
v
vi Contents
2.6 Natural and Induced Thermal Environments...........................................72
2.6.1 Introduction to the Thermal Environment....................................72
2.6.2 Spacecraft Heat Transfer Considerations........................................72
2.6.3 The Natural Thermal Environment.................................................73
2.6.4 The Induced Thermal Environment...............................................80
2.6.5 Other Lunar and Planetary Environment
Considerations.................................................................................85
2.7 Combined Environmental Effects.............................................................86
2.7.1 Introduction to Environmental Effects...........................................86
2.7.2 Combined Environments.................................................................87
2.7.3 Combined Effects............................................................................88
2.7.4 Ground Testing for Space Simulation.............................................92
References........................................................................................................94
CHAPTER 3 Overview of Bioastronautics.............................................105
3.1 Space Physiology.....................................................................................106
3.1.1 Muscular System............................................................................106
3.1.2 Skeletal System..............................................................................107
3.1.3 Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems......................................108
3.1.4 Neurovestibular System.................................................................110
3.1.5 Radiation........................................................................................111
3.1.6 Nutrition........................................................................................112
3.1.7 Immune System.............................................................................113
3.1.8 Extravehicular Activity..................................................................114
3.2 Short and Long Duration Mission Effects...............................................115
3.2.1 Muscular System............................................................................115
3.2.2 Skeletal System..............................................................................116
3.2.3 Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems......................................117
3.2.4 Neurovestibular System.................................................................119
3.2.5 Radiation........................................................................................120
3.2.6 Nutrition........................................................................................121
3.2.7 Immune System.............................................................................121
3.2.8 Extravehicular Activity..................................................................122
3.3 Health Maintenance................................................................................123
3.3.1 Preflight Preparation.....................................................................123
3.3.2 In-Flight Measures..........................................................................126
3.3.3 In-Flight Medical Monitoring.........................................................139
3.3.4 Post-Flight Recovery......................................................................142
3.4 Crew Survival..........................................................................................143
3.4.1 Overview of Health Threats in Spaceflight..................................143
3.4.2 Early Work......................................................................................144
Contents vii
3.4.3 Crew Survival on the Launch Pad, at Launch,
and During Ascent.........................................................................145
3.4.4 On-Orbit Safe Haven and Crew Transfer......................................150
3.4.5 Entry, Landing, and Post-Landing..................................................150
3.5 Conclusion...............................................................................................152
Acknowledgment...........................................................................................152
References......................................................................................................153
CHAPTER 4 Basic Principles of Space Safety .....................................163
4.1 The Cause of Accidents..........................................................................163
4.2 Principles and Methods..........................................................................165
4.2.1 Hazard Elimination and Limitation...............................................165
4.2.2 Barriers and Interlocks..................................................................166
4.2.3 Fail-Safe Design..............................................................................167
4.2.4 Failure and Risk Minimization.......................................................167
4.2.5 Monitoring, Recovery, and Escape...............................................169
4.2.6 Crew Survival Systems..................................................................169
4.3 The Safety Review Process.....................................................................170
4.3.1 Safety Requirements......................................................................170
4.3.2 The Safety Panels...........................................................................171
4.3.3 The Safety Reviews.......................................................................171
4.3.4 Nonconformances.........................................................................173
References......................................................................................................174
CHAPTER 5 Human Rating Concepts...................................................175
5.1 Human Rating Defined............................................................................175
5.1.1 Human Rated Systems...................................................................175
5.1.2 The NASA Human Rating and Process.........................................176
5.1.3 The Human Rating Plan................................................................177
5.1.4 The NASA Human Rating Certification Process...........................178
5.1.5 Human Rating in Commercial Human Spaceflight......................178
5.2 Human Rating Requirements and Approaches......................................179
5.2.1 Key Human Rating Technical Requirements................................179
5.2.2 Programmatic Requirements.........................................................182
5.2.3 Test Requirements.........................................................................183
5.2.4 Data Requirements........................................................................184
Reference........................................................................................................184
CHAPTER 6 Life Support Systems Safety.............................................185
6.1 Atmospheric Conditioning and Control.................................................188
6.1.1 Monitoring Is the Key to Control.................................................188
viii Contents
6.1.2 Atmospheric Conditioning............................................................190
6.1.3 Carbon Dioxide Removal..............................................................196
6.2 Trace Contaminant Control....................................................................198
6.2.1 Of Tight Buildings and Spacecraft Cabins....................................198
6.2.2 Trace Contaminant Control Methodology....................................201
6.2.3 Trace Contaminant Control Design Considerations....................209
6.3 Assessment of Water Quality in the Spacecraft Environment:
Mitigating Health and Safety Concerns..................................................211
6.3.1 Scope of Water Resources Relevant to Spaceflight.....................211
6.3.2 Spacecraft Water Quality and the Risk Assessment
Paradigm........................................................................................212
6.3.3 Water Quality Monitoring.............................................................217
6.3.4 Conclusion and Future Directions................................................220
6.4 Waste Management.................................................................................220
6.5 Summary of Life Support Systems..........................................................221
References......................................................................................................222
CHAPTER 7 Emergency Systems.........................................................225
7.1 Space Rescue...........................................................................................225
7.1.1 Legal and Diplomatic Basis...........................................................226
7.1.2 The Need for Rescue Capability...................................................226
7.1.3 Rescue Modes and Probabilities...................................................229
7.1.4 Hazards in the Different Phases of Flight.....................................231
7.1.5 Historic Distribution of Failures...................................................232
7.1.6 Historic Rescue Systems................................................................233
7.1.7 Space Rescue Is Primarily Self Rescue.........................................243
7.1.8 Limitations of Ground Based Rescue............................................247
7.1.9 The Crew Return Vehicle as a Study in
Space Rescue.................................................................................249
7.1.10 Safe Haven...................................................................................255
7.1.11 Conclusions.................................................................................256
7.2 Personal Protective Equipment..............................................................256
7.2.1 Purpose of Personal Protective Equipment.................................256
7.2.2 Types of Personal Protective Equipment.....................................257
References......................................................................................................265
CHAPTER 8 Collision Avoidance Systems............................................267
8.1 Docking Systems and Operations...........................................................268
8.1.1 Docking Systems as a Means for Spacecraft
Orbital Mating................................................................................268
Contents ix
8.1.2 Design Approaches Ensuring Docking Safety
and Reliability................................................................................270
8.1.3 Design Features Ensuring the Safety and Reliability of
Russian Docking Systems..............................................................275
8.1.4 Analyses and Tests Performed for Verification of Safety and
Reliability of Russian Docking Systems........................................278
Acknowledgment...........................................................................................280
8.2 Descent and Landing Systems................................................................280
8.2.1 Parachute Systems.........................................................................281
8.2.2 Known Parachute Anomolies and Lessons Learned....................296
Acknowledgment...........................................................................................299
References......................................................................................................299
CHAPTER 9 Robotic Systems Safety ...................................................301
9.1 Generic Robotic Systems........................................................................301
9.1.1 Controller and Operator Interface................................................302
9.1.2 Arms and Joints.............................................................................302
9.1.3 Drive System..................................................................................303
9.1.4 Sensors...........................................................................................303
9.1.5 End Effector...................................................................................303
9.2 Space Robotics Overview.......................................................................303
9.3 Identification of Hazards and Their Causes...........................................305
9.3.1 Electrical and Electromechanical Malfunctions...........................307
9.3.2 Mechanical and Structural Failures...............................................307
9.3.3 Failure in the Control Path...........................................................307
9.3.4 Operator Error...............................................................................307
9.3.5 Other Hazards................................................................................307
9.4 Hazard Mitigation in Design...................................................................308
9.4.1 Electrical and Mechanical Design and Redundancy....................308
9.4.2 Operator Error...............................................................................308
9.4.3 System Health Checks...................................................................308
9.4.4 Emergency Motion Arrest.............................................................309
9.4.5 Proximity Operations....................................................................309
9.4.6 Built in Test....................................................................................310
9.4.7 Safety Algorithms...........................................................................310
9.5 Hazard Mitigation Through Training......................................................310
9.6 Hazard Mitigation for Operations...........................................................312
9.7 Case Study: Understanding Canadarm2 and Space Safety.....................313
9.7.1 The Canadarm2.............................................................................313
9.7.2 Cameras..........................................................................................313
9.7.3 Force Moment Sensor...................................................................314