Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences PDF
Preview Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences
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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 4e Research Methods FOR THE Behavioral Sciences FREDERICK J GRAVETTER State University of New York College at Brockport LORI-ANN B. FORZANO State University of New York College at Brockport Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences, © 2012, 2009 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning 4th edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 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BRIEF CONTENTS PREFACE xv ABOUT THE AUTHORS xii 1 Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method 1 2 Research Ideas 39 3 Defining and Measuring Variables 71 4 Ethics in Research 107 5 Selecting Research Participants 137 6 Research Strategies and Validity 157 7 The Experimental Research Strategy 195 8 Experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design 227 9 Experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design 253 10 The Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Strategies: Nonequivalent Group, Pre–Post, and Developmental Designs 281 11 Factorial Designs 309 12 The Correlational Research Strategy 343 13 The Descriptive Research Strategy 363 14 Single-Subject Research Designs 395 15 Statistical Evaluation of Data 431 16 Writing an APA-Style Research Report 487 APPENDICES A Random Number Table and Instruction 519 B Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables 523 C Instructions for Using SPSS 553 D Sample APA-Style Research Report Manuscript for Publication 577 GLOSSARY 589 REFERENCES 601 NAME INDEX 607 SUBJECT INDEX 611 iii Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. CONTENTS PREFACE xvii ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxv 1 Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method 1 Chapter Overview 1 1.1 Introduction to Research Methodology 2 Why Take A Research Methods Course? 2 Other Reasons for Taking a Research Methods Course 3 1.2 Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge 5 The Method of Tenacity 6 The Method of Intuition 7 The Method of Authority 7 The Rational Method 10 The Empirical Method 13 Summary 15 1.3 The Scientifi c Method 16 The Steps of the Scientifi c Method 16 Other Elements of the Scientifi c Method 21 Science versus Pseudoscience 24 1.4 The Research Process 25 Step 1: Find a Research Idea: Select a Topic and Search the Literature to Find an Unanswered Question 27 Step 2: Form a Hypothesis and a Prediction 28 Step 3: Determine How You Will Defi ne and Measure Your Variables 32 Step 4: Identify and Select the Participants or Subjects for the Study 32 Step 5: Select a Research Strategy 33 Step 6: Select a Research Design 34 Step 7: Conduct the Study 34 Step 8: Evaluate the Data 34 Step 9: Report the Results 34 Step 10: Refi ne or Reformulate Your Research Idea 35 v Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. vi Contents Chapter Summary 36 Combine or Contrast Existing Key Words 36 Results 65 Converting a Research Idea into a Exercises 36 Hypothesis and Prediction 65 Learning Activities 37 2.6 Reading and Understanding a Web Resources 38 Research Article 66 Chapter Summary 68 2 Research Ideas 39 Key Words 68 Chapter Overview 39 Exercises 68 2.1 Getting Started 40 Learning Activities 69 Pick a Topic in Which You Are Web Resources 70 Interested 40 Do Your Homework 40 3 Defining and Measuring Keep an Open Mind 41 Focus, Focus, Focus 41 Variables 71 Take One Step at a Time 41 Chapter Overview 71 2.2 Finding a General Topic Area 42 3.1 An Overview of Measurement 72 Common Sources of Research Topics 42 3.2 Constructs and Operational Defi nitions 74 Common Mistakes in Choosing a Research Topic 44 Theories and Constructs 74 Operational Defi nitions 75 2.3 Finding and Using Background Limitations of Operational Literature 46 Defi nitions 76 Primary and Secondary Sources 48 Using Operational Defi nitions 76 The Purpose of a Literature Search 49 3.3 Validity and Reliability of Measurement 77 2.4 Conducting a Literature Search 52 Validity of Measurement 77 Starting Points 52 Reliability of Measurement 84 Using Online Databases 52 The Relationship Between Reliability Using PsycINFO 54 and Validity 88 Beginning a Literature Search 57 3.4 Scales of Measurement 89 The Process of Conducting a Literature Search 58 The Nominal Scale 89 Searching Forward 63 The Ordinal Scale 89 Taking Notes 63 Interval and Ratio Scales 90 Selecting a Scale of Measurement 92 2.5 Finding an Idea for a Research Study and Converting the Idea 3.5 Modalities of Measurement 93 into a Hypothesis and a Self-Report Measures 93 Prediction 64 Physiological Measures 94 Find Suggestions for Future Behavioral Measures 95 Research 64 3.6 Other Aspects of Measurement 96 Modify or Extend an Existing Multiple Measures 96 Study—Critical Reading 64 Sensitivity and Range Effects 96 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Contents vii Artifacts: Experimental Bias and 5 Selecting Research Participant Reactivity 97 Participants 137 Selecting a Measurement Procedure 101 Chapter Overview 137 Chapter Summary 102 5.1 Introduction 138 Key Words 103 Populations and Samples 138 Representative Samples 140 Exercises 103 Sample Size 141 Learning Activities 104 Sampling Basics 143 Web Resources 105 5.2 Probability Sampling Methods 144 Simple Random Sampling 144 4 Ethics in Research 107 Systematic Sampling 146 Stratifi ed Random Sampling 147 Chapter Overview 107 Proportionate Stratifi ed Random 4.1 Introduction 108 Sampling 148 Ethical Concerns Throughout the Cluster Sampling 149 Research Process 108 Combined-Strategy Sampling 150 The Basic Categories of Ethical A Summary of Probability Sampling Responsibility 109 Methods 150 4.2 Ethical Issues and Human 5.3 Nonprobability Sampling Participants in Research 109 Methods 151 Historical Highlights of Treatment of Convenience Sampling 151 Human Participants 109 Quota Sampling 152 American Psychological Association Chapter Summary 154 Guidelines 112 Key Words 154 The Institutional Review Board 125 Exercises 155 4.3 Ethical Issues and Nonhuman Subjects in Research 127 Learning Activities 155 Historical Highlights of Treatment of Web Resources 156 Nonhuman Subjects 128 American Psychological Association 6 Research Strategies and Guidelines 128 The Institutional Animal Care and Use Validity 157 Committee 129 Chapter Overview 157 4.4 Ethical Issues and Scientifi c 6.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Integrity 130 Research 158 Fraud in Science 130 6.2 Strategies for Quantitative Plagiarism 132 Research 159 Chapter Summary 133 The Descriptive Research Key Words 135 Strategy 160 Exercises 135 Relationships Between Variables 160 Learning Activities 136 Web Resources 136 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. viii Contents The Correlational Research Strategy: 6.6 More About Internal and External Measuring Two Variables for Each Validity 185 Individual 161 Balancing Internal and External Comparing Two or More Sets of Validity 187 Scores: The Experimental, Artifacts: Threats to Both Internal and Quasi-Experimental, and External Validity 187 Nonexperimental Research Exaggerated Variables 188 Strategies 162 Validity and Individual Research The Experimental Research Strategies 189 Strategy 163 6.7 Research Strategies, Research Designs, The Quasi-Experimental Research and Research Procedures 189 Strategy 163 Research Strategies 189 The Nonexperimental Research Research Designs 189 Strategy 164 Research Procedures 190 Research Strategy Summary 165 Chapter Summary 191 Data Structures and Statistical Analysis 165 Key Words 192 Summary 167 Exercises 192 6.3 Internal and External Validity 167 Learning Activities 193 External Validity 168 Web Resources 194 Internal Validity 169 Validity and the Quality of a Research 7 The Experimental Research Strategy 170 6.4 Threats to External Validity 171 Strategy 195 Category 1: Generalizing Across Chapter Overview 195 Participants or Subjects 171 7.1 Cause-and-Effect Relationships 196 Category 2: Generalizing Across Terminology for the Experimental Features of a Study 174 Research Strategy 198 Category 3: Generalizing Across Features of the Measures 175 Causation and the Third-Variable Problem 199 6.5 Threats to Internal Validity 176 Causation and the Directionality Extraneous Variables 176 Problem 200 Confounding Variables 177 Controlling Nature 201 Extraneous Variables, Confounding 7.2 Distinguishing Elements of an Variables, and Internal Experiment 202 Validity 179 Manipulation 202 Environmental Variables: General Control 205 Threats to Internal Validity for All Studies 180 7.3 Dealing with Extraneous Individual Differences: Threats Variables 207 to Internal Validity for Studies Control by Holding Constant or Comparing Different Groups 181 Matching 209 Time-Related Variables: Threats Control by Randomization 211 to Internal Validity for Studies Comparing Methods of Control 212 Comparing One Group over Advantages and Disadvantages of Time 181 Control Methods 213 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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