Psychology for Cambridge International AS & A Level: Revision Guide

177 Pages·2015·13.49 MB·English

by  Craig Roberts

for Cambridge
International AS & A Level
Craig Roberts
Bowling Green State University. Psyd1ology Depart111e11t for
OXFORD
extract from the Job Descriptive Index from Tiw MeasurernroL oj·
UNIVERSITY l?RBSS
Su LisjilcLio11 in Work und ReLirt'11re11t: u Strategy jor the Study ofA Lti·
Great Clarendon Street, Oxforcl, OX2 GDP. Unitccl KiJ1gdow Ludes by P C Smith. L M Kendall, and C 1 J-1ulliI1 (Rand McNally,
1969)
Oxford Uuivcrsity Press is a clc1:>artmea l of Lbc U1uversjty of
OxforclJt ft11tl1C'rs tl1e Uniwrsity' s objective of C'Xcellcl1ce in Elsevier for the SRRS questiotmaire from "lbe Social Read-
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LhC' UK a11cl in CC'1t.;Un otht•r countries 1967; ai1d extract from '111e Vancouver Obsessional Compttlsive
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© Oxford University Press 2011
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The m oral rigl1ts of the authors have been asserted
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Irving Gottesman for table from Schizop1irenia Genesis: the Ori·
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You iuust not ruct.1late LJ1is worl< iJ1 c:u1y other form ai1cl yo u
(7). 2012. µp 466-70
mttSt iluposc lllis saiuc conditio11 011 any acqttirer
David J Weiss for extract from the Min11esota Satisfaction
British T..il>rary Cataloguing in Publication Data
Que~tioru1aire in Vocational Psychology Rcseardi by DJ Weiss.
Data available
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;u1d Socjal Rcsotu·ccs as Mediator: ' by Anita Delongis. Susan
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Introduction
This book has been written to support you throughout your Cambridge
International AS and A Level Psychology course. The Revision Gu ide
works alongside the Student Book to reinforce knowledge and
understanding.
The book is divided into two parts: one for the AS Level and one for the
A Level. The AS part will guide you through all 20 Core Studies and the
A Leve l part will guide you through the two options you have chosen to
study (from the five available).
The Revision Guide will also cover marked student examples, which
have been written by the author, so you can practice answering
exam-style questions to the best of your abilities.
Author
Craig is a freelance tutor and author of psychology textbooks. He has
been teaching for over 20 years and is an experienced examiner with a
number of National and International examination boards.
Acknowledgements
I simply have to thank everyone who has made an impact on my life
and who support me through every venture I take on. This includes
my family, closest friends and cat! I could and would not be doing this
without any of you. A special thank you has to go to all the teachers I
trained in Florida in February 2014 for making my first training event
brilliant.
Another special thank you goes to the teachers I trained in Mumbai and
Bangalore in September 2014 who made me so welcome - it was an
honour to be in your schools and to meet you. Finally, a big thank you to
the incredible Mr.D.
Dedication
To Mum & Dad. Always love you .
...
111
Contents
Approaches and perspectives in psychology v
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
How psychologists research ................................................ 1
IEJ Issues and debates in psychology •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 4
II Cognitive Psychology ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7
II Socia I Psychology •• •• •• •• ••• •• •• •• ••• •• •• •• ••• •• •• •• ••• •• •• ••• •• •• •• • •• •• •• •• • 15
II Developmental Psychology •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 24
II Physiological Psychology ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 34
The psychology of individual differences 45
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
AS Level Exam Centre 56
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••
Psychology and education .•............................................... 61
II
Psychology and health •.......•..•.•......................................... 82
m
Psychology and environment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 101
Im
Models of a bnorma I ity • •. ••. ••• •.• ••••••••••• ••• •.• ••• •.• .•• •. ••• ••• ••• •••• 120
m
Psychology and organisations 140
•••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••
m
A Level Exam Centre ...•..•.•....•.•.••.•.........................•.........•.•....•.. 161
•
IV
Approaches and perspectives
in psychology
There are five approaches and two perspectives in
Strengths Weaknesses
psychology that you need to know for the Cambridge
The approach tends to A lot of evidence from
International Examinations syllabus.
look at the individual this approach is from
"as a whole" to try to studies that have used
Cognitive psychology explain behaviour across questionnaires and
situations. Therefore, it ls Interviews. Therefore, the
• Cognitive psychologists are interested in how we
a more holistic approach validity may be reduced as
process information. than using laboratory what people say they will
• They look into how we input information, then how experiments. do and what they actually
do can be different.
we process that information and finally how we This approach is useful
retrieve and/or use that information. in terms of being able to It can be very difficult
help improve everyday life sometimes to distinguish
• They believe that the brain works like a computer
in humans by, for example, between what is influenced
following the procedure of input-process/storage-
reducing prejudice or by the individual and
output.
explaining atrocities. what is influenced by
The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge the situation people find
syllabus under this section are: Mann, Vrij & Bull themselves in.
(2002), Loftus & Pickrell (1995), Baron-Cohen
et al (2001), Held & Hein (1963).
Developmental psychology
The main research method used in this approach is
• Developmental psychologists are interested in
laboratory experiments.
how we "develop" as a person from birth to death.
Strengths Weaknesses
• Many developmental psychologists focus on "child
Many findings are based As researchers are
development" and what sorts of things affect
on research conducted in a Investigating processed
how a chi ld develops psychologically and socially.
laboratory. As variables are information that cannot be
They also look at how physical development might
controlled it means that seen directly, there is still
affect psychological development.
findings are more likely to an elen1ent of guesswork
be reliable. and inference. • There are other psychologists who will examine
development over a lifespan. Therefore, they may
The approach is useful in Comparing the human
exan1ine development from adolescence through
terms of being able to help Information-processing
Improve everyday life in system to that of a early adulthood into late adulthood.
humans by, for example, computer is reductionist. The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge
improving memory or It ignores the role of
syllabus under this section are: Bandura, Ross &
Improving eyewitness emotional and socia l
Ross (1961), Freud (1909), Langlois et al (1991),
testimony. factors.
Nelson (1980).
The main research methods used in this approach
Social psychology
are observations and longitudinal studies.
• Social psychologists are interested in how we
Strengths Weaknesses
"work" in the social world.
Longitudinal studies are Longitudinal studies can be
• They look at how individuals interact with each used In this approach very time consuming and
other and how we interact in "groups" . and they are an costly and participants will
excellent way to assess drop out (participant attrition
• They also examine how the role of culture and
development over time can be high). As a result,
society affects our behavlou r.
with participant variables findings may be difficult to
The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge
being controlled for. generalise to outside of the
syllabus under this section are: Milgram (1963), participants who are left as
Also, as we are following
Haney, Banks & Zimbardo (1973), Piliavin, Rodin & there may only be a few and
the same people over a
Piliavin (1969), Tajfel (1970). they could be unique.
period of time, we can
The main research methods used in this approach examine what is down There may be ethical issues
to nature and what is with studying children
are questionnaires and interviews.
down to nurture in terms overtime. This is because
of how these influence before they are 16 years old
part.icipants. their parents have to give
informed consent.
v
Approaches and perspectives in psychology
Physiological psychology The behaviourist
• Physiological psychologists are interested ih how
perspective
our biology affects our psychology.
• Behaviourist psychologists are interested in ways
• They look at the role things such as genetics,
in which both humans and animals learn .
brain function, hormones and neurotransmitters
• They look into general laws that can apply to all
have on our behaviour.
species and how the experiences we have mould
• Many physiological psychologists believe that
our behaviour over time.
our behaviour can be explained via biological
• There are three main areas within this
mechanisms more so than psychological
perspective:
mechanisms. However, others believe that
there may be an interaction between the two. o learning by the consequences of our behaviour
(operant conditioning)
The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge
syllabus under this section are: Schachter & Singer o learning through association (classical
(1962), Dement & Kleitman (1957), Maguire, conditioning)
..
Frackowiak & Frith (1997}, Dematte, Osterbauer &
o learning through observation , imitation and
Spence (2007).
modelling (social learning).
The main research method used in this approach is
• Strict behaviourism follows the idea that we
laboratory experiments.
should "observe the observable" and not
Strengths Weaknesses examine mental processes as they cannot be
directly seen.
The approach is very The approach can be seen
scientific as it uses as being reductionist as it There are no named studies for this perspective
methods such as laboratory ignores the roles of social
but Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) can be used as
experiments, blood tests, and emotlonal factors in
an example of social learning. The main research
brain scanning, etc. These our development.
methods used in this perspective are laboratory
are highly controlled As
many studies take place
experin1ents and observations.
methods that can easily be under controlled laboratory
tested for reliability.
conditions, many studies Strengths Weaknesses
As we are dealing with lack ecological validity
The perspective is very Parts of thi.s perspective
biological mechanisms, it is and mundane realism .
objective as it "observes ignore the ro le of social,
an excellent way to assess Therefore, some biological
the observable" - cognitive and emotional
which of our behaviours are reactions may be triggered
this means that aspects of behaviour.
due to nature and which because of beJng in a data is scientific a.nd Therefore it can be seen
are due to nurture. controlled environment. quantitative and likely as being reductionist in
not to be biased. just focusing on observable
The psychology of The
approach is useful aspects.
in terms of being able to Some psychologists disagree
individual differences
help improve everyday that there are general laws
• This approach looks at how, as individuals, we life in humans by, for that govern anin1al and human
differ from one another. example, reducing behaviour - humans are more
phobias or modifying complex than animals.
• Instead of looking for explanations that could
a child's behaviour for
explain how lots of people may behave,
the better.
psychologists who research into this area look
at what makes the individual unique.
The psychodynamic
• Rather than looking for general laws, psychologists
who research into this area may focus more on
perspective
what makes the individual different from the
• Psychodynamic psychologists are interested in
others around him or her.
how our early lives and our unconscious mind
The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge
affect our behaviour.
syllabus under this section are: Rosenhan (1973),
Thigpen & Cleckley (1954), Billington, Baron-Cohen & • They look at the role of early childhood
Wheelwright (2007), Veale & Riley (2001}. development and how traumas that occur at
various stages may affect adult personallty.
Strengths Weaknesses
• They also look at how our unconscious mind (the
This approach can be useful Findings from studies may
part of the mind that we are unaware of) affects
In explaining differences have limited generalisability
our everyday behaviour.
between individuals in the as they are focusing on
cause of behaviours. These the individual rather than a There are no named studies for this perspective
can be useful during, for group of people. but Freud and Thigpen and Cleckley (1909) are
example, therapy so the
This approach can be seen psychodynamic case studies. The main research
treatment can be tailored
as being reductionist as methods used in this perspective are case studies
to the individual.
it ignores the way we do and interviews.
• This approach is holistic behave in groups .
VI
in nature as it takes into
account a variety of aspects
that can affect the individual.
4 . Physiological
Strengths Weaknesses
The approach is useful An idea such as the
in terms of being able to unconscious mind cannot
help improve everyday be directly tested and is
life in humans such as therefore unscientific . How
helping to understand why can you assess something
we have a mental health that cannot be directly
disorder and then helping seen or manipulated?
to overcome it.
Many findings from this
Evidence comes from case perspective are based on
studies that gather rich case studies. These niay
in-depth information. be difficult to generalise to
a larger group.
Here is a reminder of the five approaches and two
perspectives.
1. Cognitive
5. Individual differences
2. Social
6. Behaviourist
7. Psychodynamic
3. Developmental
••
Vll
How psychologists
research
The main methods of research that psychologists
Strengths Weaknesses
can choose from include:
Laboratory experiments As laboratory experiments
• experiments (laboratory and field) have high le
vels of control take place in an artificial
• self-reports (questionnaires and interviews) and so can be replicated to setting, it is said that they
test for reliability. can lack ecological validity.
• case studies
As laboratory experiments Many laboratory
• observations (naturalistic, controlled,
have high levels of control , experiments can make
participant).
researchers can be more participants take part in
As well as choosing the most appropriate research confident it is the IV tasks that are nothing like
method, psyct1ologists have to also decide: directly affecting the DV. real-life ones so they lack
mundane realism .
• who the participants are (the sample) and how
Participants may work out
they are going to recruit {the sampling technique)
the aim of the study and
• if they are using an experiment, which design
act according to that rather
of study to use (e.g. repeated measures,
than how they truly feel.
independent groups or matched pairs) This Is called "demand
characteristics".
• what the procedure of the study will be for the
participants including what apparatus is needed
Field experiments
• the type of data they want to collect
• These are experiments that take place in the
(e.g. quantitative or qualitative).
participants' own natural environment rather than
in an artificial laboratory.
Research methods
• The researcher still tries to manipulate or change
Laboratory experiments an IV whi le measuring the DV in an attempt to
• These take place in a situation or environment see how the IV affects the DV.
that is artificial to participants in the study. • There is an attempt to control other variables that
could affect the DV.
• There are two main types of variable that need to
be considered when running any experiment:
Strengths Weaknesses
o The independent variable (IV) is the variable
As field experiments take Situational variables can
that the psychologist chooses to manipulate place in a real
istic setting, be difficult to control so
or change. This represents the different it is said that they have sometimes it is difficult to
conditions that are being compared in ecological validity. know whether it is the IV
a11y study. As the participants wi ll affecting the DV.
o The dependent variable (DV) is the variable not know they are taking As the participants will not
part in a study, there will know they are taking part
that the psychologist chooses to measure. It
be little or no evidence of in a study, there are issues
is always hoped that the IV is directly affecting
demand characteristics. with breaking ethical
the DV i11 an experiment.
guidelines.
• The psychologist will attempt to control as many
other variables as possible to try to ensure Questlonnal res
that it is the IV directly affecting tl1e DV. There
• When a study uses a questionnaire, it is asking
are different types of variable that ca11 also
participants to answer a series of questions in
affect the DV and that have to be controlled if
the written form.
possible.
• There are various types of question that a
psychologist can use within a questionnaire-
based study:
o Likert scales: statements that participants
read and then state whether they Strongly
agree1 Disagree, etc. witl1 the statement.
o Rating scales: questions or statements where
the participant gives an answer fn the form of
a number.
1.
1 How psychologists research
o Open-ended questions: questions that allow
Strengths Weaknesses
participants to develop an answer and write
As psychologists using As psychologists using
it in their own words. They write sentences to
case studies are focusing case studies are focusing
answer the question.
on one indivldual (or unit on one individual (or unit
o Closed questions: questions where there are of individuals) they can of individuals), the case
a set amount of answers and participants collect rich, In-depth data may be unique. Th is makes
choose which answer best fits how they want that has details. generalisations quite
difficult.
to respond. Participants are usually
studied as part of their As participants are studied
Strengths Weaknesses
everyday life which means in depth, an attachment
Participants may be more Participants may give that the whole process could form between them
likely to reveal truthful socially desirable answers tends to have some and the psychologist wh ich
answers in a questionnaire as they want to look good ecological validity. could reduce the objectivity
as it does not involve talking rather than giving truthful of the study.
face to face with someone. answers.
A large sample of participants If the questionnaire has Observations
can answer the questionnaire a lot of closed questions
• This research method is about watching and
In a short time span participants might be
observing people or animals and their behaviours.
which should increase the forced into choosing an
• Prior to observing, the psychologist must create
representativeness and answer that does not
a behavioural checklist (called an ethogram if
generaJlsability of the findings. reflect their true opinion.
observing non-humans).
Interviews • This checklist mus
t name each behaviour that
• These are similar to questionnaires but instead of the psychologist is expecting see. In addition, a
being in the written form they are in the spoken form. picture of the behaviour happening and a brief
description of that behaviour are useful.
• An interviewer asks a series of questions using
the types highlighted above. Interviewers may • The behavioural checklist or ethogram must be
record the interview so they can go back and "tested " before the main observation to ensure
transcribe exactly what participants said . that all potential behaviours are covered and the
observers can use the checklist or ethogram
• Structured: this ls when a set order of questions
successfully. This is called a pilot observation.
is used. Each participant will be asked them in
that order. • Naturalistic observations are observations that
take place in a person's or animal's own natural
• Semi-structured: there are certain questions
environment.
that must be asked of participants. However,
the interviewer can ask them in a different order • Controlled observations are observations that
and/or ask other questions to help clarify a take place in a controlled setting such as a
participant's response. laboratory.
• Unstructured: this is when the interviewer has a • Participant observations are observations
theme or topic that needs to be discussed. The whereby psychologists become a part of the
interviewer may have an initial question to begin group they wish to observe. This can be overt
the interview but each subsequent question is (the group knows who the psychologist is and
based on the response given by the participaht. that they are being o.bserved) or covert (the group
does not know that a psychologist is In the group
Strength Weakness
observing them).
If the interview has a lot Participants might be
Strengths Weaknesses
of open questions then less likely to give truthful
participants wi ll reveal answers (maybe due to If the participants are If the participants are
more of the reasons why social desirability) as they unaware that they are aware that they are being
they behave in such a way are actually face to face being observed then they observed then they may
or have a certain opinion. with the interviewer and should behave "naturally". not act "naturally" and
might not want to be judged. instead show socially
As behaviours are
desirable behaviours.
"counted" and are hence
Case studies
quantitative, the process .is It may be difficult to replicate
• A case study is not a '' true" research method as objective. the study if it is natutalistic
it uses other methods to collect the data. as many variables cannot be
controlled.
• It examines a single person or a unit of people
(e.g. a family) in depth.
• There may be something unusual about the
"case ti (e.g. a trauma or a mental health issue).
• The psychologist will use questionnaires,
interviews and observations to collect the data.
2
Participants and sampling Strengths of independent Weaknesses of
groups independent groups
• Participants are the people who choose to take
As participants only take There may be a problem
part in a study.
part in one condition they with participant variables
• The researcher must decide on a target population
are less likely to guess the affecting the DV rather
(TP). This is the group of people that the psychologist
aim of the study, reducing than the IV.
wants to take the same from in the hope that the the potential effects of
More participants are
findings can generalise to and be representative of demand characteristics.
required for th is type
that TP. The main ones are highlighted below: A
s participants only take of design compared to
o Opportunity sampling involves researchers part in one condition repeated measures.
there are no order effects
recruit ing participants who happen to be
(see the table below for
around at the time they need participants.
examples) that can reduce
o Self-selected or volunteer sampling involves
the validity of the findings.
the researcher advertising for participants.
Therefore, participants choose whether they
o Repeated measures : when a participant takes
want to participate.
part in all of the levels of the IV. You must use
o Random sampling involves every participant in counterbalancing, which is sometimes called
the TP having an equal chance of being chosen. an ABBA design. For example, 50 per cent of
participants do level A then level 8 of the JV
o Stratified sampling involves recruiting a
and the other 50 per cent do level B then A.
sample that is a mini version of the TP.
Therefore, researchers recruit participants
Strengths of repeated Weaknesses of repeated
from each major stratum in their TP (e.g. age
measures measures
groups, gender and ethnicity).
This eliminates any effect As all partici.pants take
of participant variables as part in all conditions, there
Strengths of Weaknesses of
all participants take part is a chance of demand
representative sampling representative sampling
in al I conditions therefore characteristics affecting
(random and stratified) (random and stratified)
they are controlled. the study.
The researcher can Obtaining details of the
Fewer participants are Order effects can affect
generalise to the TP with TP to use to draw the
needed for this type the findings of the study.
more confidence. This sample may be difficult.
of design compared to Examples of these effects
is because the sample Researchers cannot
independent groups. are: practice effect
Is more likely to be guarantee a representative
(participants getting
representative of the TP. sample (as with random
better at a task when they
sampllng) - for example all
complete a similar one for
chosen participants could
the second time) r fatigue
be of one gender.
effect {the more tasks
participants do the more
Strengths of non- Weaknesses of no~
tired they might become)
representative sampling representative sampling
and boredom effect
(opportunity and (opportunity and
(repeating slmllar tasks
volunteer) volunteer)
can bore participants).
Large numbers of Researchers are unlikely
participants can be obtained to gain a wide variety of
o Matched pairs: when participants are matched
relatively quickly and easily. participants to allow for
on the variable researchers wish to control for
generalisation .
People are more likely to
in the study. Once participants are matched,
participate if they have
each member of the pair takes part in one
already volunteered so the
level of the IV.
drop-out rate should be lower
than with non-volunteers.
Strength of matched pairs Weaknesses of matched
pal rs
Participant variables It can be a study In itself
Design of study
are controlled for and to find participants who
eliminated as the pairs are matched on all of the
(experimental or
of participants have been variables the psychologist
participant design) matched on them. has chosen. This is very
time consuming.
• This refers to how psychologist s allocate
There may be one or two
participants to the varying conditions of their
participant variables that
experiment . There are three different designs:
are ~overlooked'' with the
o Independent groups: when a participant only
initial matching and these
takes part in one leve l of the IV. If the IV could affect the DV rather
is naturally occurring (e.g. gender) then an than the IV.
experimenter must use thls type of design. In
a true independent groups design, participants
3
are randomly allocated to one level of t he IV.