Plastics and the Environment

762 Pages·2003·4.472 MB·English

by  Anthony L. Andrady

PLASTICS AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
Editedby
ANTHONY L. ANDRADY
ResearchTriangleInstitute
ResearchTrianglePark,NC
AJOHNWILEY&SONSPUBLICATION
Copyright2003byJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Allrightsreserved.
PublishedbyJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,NewJersey.
PublishedsimultaneouslyinCanada.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedin
anyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,scanning,or
otherwise,exceptaspermittedunderSection107or108ofthe1976UnitedStatesCopyright
Act,withouteitherthepriorwrittenpermissionofthePublisher,orauthorizationthrough
paymentoftheappropriateper-copyfeetotheCopyrightClearanceCenter,Inc.,222
RosewoodDrive,Danvers,MA01923,978-750-8400,fax[phone],oronthewebat
www.copyright.com.RequeststothePublisherforpermissionshouldbeaddressedtothe
PermissionsDepartment,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,111RiverStreet,Hoboken,NJ07030,
[phone],fax[phone],e-mail:[email protected].
LimitofLiability/DisclaimerofWarranty:Whilethepublisherandauthorhaveusedtheir
besteffortsinpreparingthisbook,theymakenorepresentationsorwarrantieswithrespectto
theaccuracyorcompletenessofthecontentsofthisbookandspecificallydisclaimany
impliedwarrantiesofmerchantabilityorfitnessforaparticularpurpose.Nowarrantymaybe
createdorextendedbysalesrepresentativesorwrittensalesmaterials.Theadviceand
strategiescontainedhereinmaynotbesuitableforyoursituation.Youshouldconsultwitha
professionalwhereappropriate.Neitherthepublishernorauthorshallbeliableforanyloss
ofprofitoranyothercommercialdamages,includingbutnotlimitedtospecial,incidental,
consequential,orotherdamages.
ForgeneralinformationonourotherproductsandservicespleasecontactourCustomerCare
DepartmentwithintheU.S.at877-762-2974,outsidetheU.S.at317-572-3993or
fax[phone].
Wileyalsopublishesitsbooksinavarietyofelectronicformats.Somecontentthatappears
inprint,however,maynotbeavailableinelectronicformat.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData:
Andrady,A.L.(AnthonyL.)
Plasticsandtheenvironment/AnthonyL.Andrady.
p.cm.
ISBN0-471-09520-6(cloth:acid-freepaper)
1.Plastics–Environmentalaspects.I.Title.
TP1120.A542003
(cid:1) (cid:1)
668.40286—dc21
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
10987654321
CONTENTS
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xix
Contributors xxi
PART 1 1
1 ANENVIRONMENTALPRIMER 3
AnthonyL.Andrady
1.1 Introduction 8
1.2 The Big Picture—Earth and its Environment 11
1.3 The Small Picture—Business Enterprises 18
1.4 Valuation of Environmental Resources 25
1.5 Stewardship of the Environment 27
1.6 Environmental Issues Related to the Plastics Industry:
Global Concerns 32
1.7 Environmental Issues Related to the Polymer Industry:
Local and Regional Concerns 51
1.8 Present Treatment 56
Appendix A: Global Warming 62
Appendix B: Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone 69
vii
viii CONTENTS
2 COMMONPLASTICSMATERIALS 77
AnthonyL.Andrady
2.1 Common Thermoplastics 79
2.2 Polyethylenes 83
2.3 Polypropylene 93
2.4 Poly(vinyl Chloride) 96
2.5 Polystyrene 101
2.6 Poly(ethylene Terephthalate) 103
2.7 From Resins to Thermoplastic Products 105
2.8 Polyurethane and other Polymeric Foams 113
3 POLYMERSANDENERGY 123
IanBoustead
3.1 Introduction 123
3.2 Contributions to Energy 124
3.3 Feedstock 125
3.4 Transport 125
3.5 Representations of Energy 126
3.6 Gross and Net Calorific Values 127
3.7 Typical Gross Energies for Polymer Production 128
3.8 Conversion Processes 132
3.9 Energy and Polymer Recycling 133
PART 2 137
4 PLASTICSINPACKAGING 139
SusanE.M.Selke
4.1 Introduction 139
4.2 Packaging Functions 142
4.3 Advantages of Plastics in Packaging Applications 143
4.4 Types of Plastics Packaging 145
4.5 Common Packaging Plastics 148
4.6 Biodegradable Plastics 158
4.7 Source Reduction 160
4.8 Reuse 162
4.9 Recycling 163
CONTENTS ix
4.10 Energy and Environmental Assessments 166
4.11 Legislation and Regulation 177
5 PLASTICSINAGRICULTURE 185
IkramHussainandHalimHamid
5.1 Introduction 185
5.2 Greenhouse Films 187
5.3 Weather Parameters that Affect Plastics Lifetime 190
5.4 Stabilization of Plastics 192
5.5 Mulch Films 197
5.6 Plastics in Silage 199
5.7 Disposal of Waste Plastic Films 199
5.8 Drip Irrigation Systems 201
Appendix: Structure of Selected UV-Stabilizers 207
6 COATING 211
LorenW.Hill
6.1 Environment Cost and Benefits Coatings 211
6.2 Coatings and the Energy Crisis 212
6.3 Coatings and the Material Crisis 212
6.4 Historical Development of the Coatings Industry 213
6.5 Binders and Solvents Used in Modern Coatings 215
6.6 Effect of Government Regulations on the Coatings
Industry 220
6.7 Coatings Industry Responses to Regulation 228
7 WASTESFROMTEXTILEPROCESSING 243
BrentSmith
7.1 Introduction 243
7.2 Yarn Formation 266
7.3 Yarn Preparation 267
7.4 Fabric Formation 269
7.5 Textile Wet Processing Chemicals 271
7.6 Substrate Preparation (Pretreatment) 276
7.7 Coloration: Dyeing and Printing 283
7.8 Finishing 299
7.9 Product Fabrication 303
7.10 Conclusion 304
x CONTENTS
PART 3 311
8 ENVIRONMENTALEFFECTSONPOLYMERIC
MATERIALS 313
NormaD.Searle
8.1 Introduction 313
8.2 Weather Factors and Their Effects on Polymeric
Materials 314
8.3 Environmental Stability and Degradation Mechanisms of
Polymeric Materials 320
8.4 Stabilization of Polymeric Materials Against
Environmental Effects 330
8.5 Environmental Weathering Tests 339
8.6 Laboratory-Accelerated Weathering Tests 342
8.7 Laboratory-Accelerated versus Environmental
Weathering Tests 351
9 BIODEGRADABLEPOLYMERS 359
StephenP.McCarthy
9.1 Introduction 359
9.2 Justification 360
9.3 Requirements for Design and Manufacture 361
9.4 Biodegradable Polymers from Renewable Resources 361
9.5 Biodegradable Polymers from Petroleum-Derived
Products 367
9.6 Future Developments 368
10 PLASTICSINTHEMARINEENVIRONMENT 379
MurrayR.GregoryandAnthonyL.Andrady
10.1 Introduction 379
10.2 Plastic Litter and other Marine Debris 381
10.3 Biological and Environmental Impacts 385
10.4 Degradation of Plastics at Sea 389
10.5 Photodegradable Plastics as a Mitigation Strategy 394
10.6 Conclusions 397
11 FLAMMABILITYOFPOLYMERS 403
ArchibaldTewarson
11.1 Introduction 403
11.2 Heat Exposure of a Polymer 406
CONTENTS xi
11.3 Release of Polymer Vapors 407
11.4 Polymer Melting 408
11.5 Polymer Vaporization/Decomposition 417
11.6 Ignition of Polymer Vapors 417
11.7 Combustion of Polymer Vapors 435
11.8 Fire Propagation 461
Nomenclature 486
12 BIODEGRADABLEWATER-SOLUBLEPOLYMERS 491
GrahamSwift
12.1 Introduction 491
12.2 Definitions 493
12.3 Opportunities for Biodegradable Water-Soluble Polymers 495
12.4 Test Methods for Biodegradable Water-Soluble Polymers 497
12.5 Synthesis of Biodegradable Water-Soluble Polymers 499
12.6 Modified Natural Polymers 509
12.7 Conclusions 513
PART 4 521
13 POLYMERS,POLYMERRECYCLING,AND
SUSTAINABILITY 523
JohannesBrandrup
13.1 Introduction: What is Sustainability 523
13.2 Polymers and Sustainability 524
13.3 Polymer Recycling and Sustainability 530
13.4 Conclusions 560
14 PLASTICSRECYCLING 563
MichaelM.Fisher
14.1 Introduction 563
14.2 Basic Plastics Recycling Definitions and Nomenclature 564
14.3 Polymer Recovery, Recycling, Resource Conservation,
and Integrated Resource Management as Global
Concepts 566
14.4 Early History of Plastics Recycling (Pre-1990) 567
14.5 Polymer Recycling Statistics 569
14.6 Marking of Plastic Packages and Products 574
14.7 Collection of Plastics for Recycling 577
xii CONTENTS
14.8 Overview of Plastics Recycling Technology 583
14.9 Looking Ahead 617
15 THERMALDESTRUCTIONOFWASTESANDPLASTICS 629
AshwaniK.GuptaandDavidG.Lilley
15.1 Introduction 629
15.2 Magnitude of the General Incineration Problem 630
15.3 Sources, Disposal, and Recycling of Plastic and other
Wastes 634
15.4 Incineration of Cellulose and Surrogate Solid Wastes 641
15.5 Thermal Destruction of Plastic and Nonplastic Solid
Waste 655
15.6 Thermal Destruction of Polypropylene, Polystyrene,
Polyethylene, and Polyvinyl Chloride 673
15.7 Prospects, Challenges, and Opportunities for Energy
Recovery from Wastes 693
15.8 Closure 694
16 RECYCLINGOFCARPETANDTEXTILEFIBERS 697
YoujiangWang,YiZhang,MalcolmB.Polk,SatishKumar,and
JohnD.Muzzy
16.1 Introduction 697
16.2 Textile Waste and Recycling 698
16.3 Carpet Waste and Composition 699
16.4 Fiber Recycling Technologies 701
16.5 Summary 721
17 POLYMERSINAUTOMOBILEAPPLICATIONS 727
WendyLange
17.1 Introduction 727
17.2 General Environmental Impacts 730
17.3 Using Polymers in Vehicles 731
17.4 Summary 744
Index 747
PREFACE
ONTHEENVIRONMENT...
Ironically the most significant barrier to developing and implementing a viable
environmental strategy appears to be the environmental debate itself. It has long
left its home territory of science and ventured into the less predictable public
arenaofgreengroups,corporateinterests,andpublicwatchdogs.Politicizationof
environmentalissueshasleadtoadegreeofpolarizationamongvariousinterests
that seriously interferes with objective scientific evaluation of the key issues.
Yet it is precisely that type of critical analysis that is crucial to preserve the
global environment. It is certainlynot a caseof merelydoing something “for the
environment” to make us feelbetter for having been sympathetic to the plight of
the ecosystem but of consistently contributing to what is reallyneededto protect
the biosphere.
The key environmental caution articulated by Malthus back in 1798 cer-
tainly remains valid today. Critics and skeptic environmentalists have repeat-
edly pointed out that Malthusian predictions have never materialized as yet.
The population has indeed increased as predicted, with the overall affluence
improved globally, but quite contrary to Malthus’s expectation, we have more
than enough food to feed the masses. But also, we have so far been running
ahead of Malthus in a race where our advantage has been technical innova-
tion. Technology has certainly not run out of steam, and the promise of coming
days of new cheaper energy sources and alternate abundant (even perhaps)
renewable materials are certainly credible from a technical vantage point. The
crucial issue, however, is one of timing. Can humanity maintain the advantage
xiii
xiv PREFACE
it presently enjoys, approximately matching the rate of depletion of the cur-
rent set of fossil fuel energy and material resources given our rate of progress
in developing the next set of replacement resources and technologies? Specifi-
cally, can the petroleum energy reserves (now known and yet to be discovered)
last long enough for us to develop, for instance, practical cost-effective fusion
energy or to make the breakthrough in efficient harvesting of solar power? Can
we stretch our strategic metal resources far enough until better manufactur-
ing technologies no longer dependent on these can be discovered and devel-
oped? Can these goals be achieved at the rate needed without causing global
environmental ills such as climate forcing? That is the relevant articulation of
Malthus’s caution.
Areasonableanswertothesequestionsisthatwedonotknowforsurebutare
justifiablyoptimistic.Ourestimatesofthelongevityofavailablenaturalresources
crucial to life as we know it are woefully inadequate because we do not know
the full extent of reserves or the rate of depletion reliably. We know even less
about the rate of relevant technology breakthroughs in the future. Therefore, we
cannot know which of these is the faster process, but we should be convinced
of the need to run ahead of Malthus at all future times. Most would agree with
this conclusion but differ on their interpretation of what “running ahead” means
in practical terms. Two schools of thought, the progeny of the aforementioned
polarization of the community, are evident in the literature.
Some,includingscientists,haveadoptedasomewhatnarrowvisionofthetask
at hand. In this vision, achieving economic development and global affluence is
counterbalancedbyenvironmentaldamageandlossofresources.Thelogicofthe
position assumesthathumanitydrawsuponaconstantresourcepoolandthetwo
activitiesarethereforemutuallyexclusive.Thus,slowingdowndevelopment(and
therefore our economic well-being) becomes synonymous with environmental
preservation.Implicitintheargumentisanunreasonableandprematurerejection
of the promise of technology.
Others propose that we should live as we have been living, continuing to
boost the energy intensity of our life-styles, focusing on economic development
and the social well-being of the global citizenry. It is, they argue with some
credibility, the economic development that invariably fuels and facilitates high
levels of environmental stewardship. We, the hare, are so far ahead that the
Malthusian tortoise can hardly hope to catch up with us. The enormous power
of technology will save us each and every time, substituting resources, cleaning
up the environment, serving its master unfailingly (until perhaps humanity faces
entropic death of the system at the very end of our days!).
The consumer, using the powerful tools of his or her voting right in a democ-
racyandhisorherenormouscollectivepocketbook,endorsesoneortheotherof
these groups. Issues relating to the environment, however, are complex enough
to lead objective unbiased scientists to debate for years with each other. The
lack of time, resources, and inclination of the general public to study envi-
ronmental issues and come to educated conclusions defers this important task