Table Of Content

Places of Refuge for Ships in Distress Legal Aspects of Sustainable Development Series Editor David Freestone This series publishes work on all aspects of the international legal dimensions of the concept of sustainable development. Its aim is to publish important works of scholarship on a range of relevant issues including conservation of natural resources, climate change, biodiversity loss and the role of international agreements, international organizations and state practice. VOLUME 12 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.nl/lasd Places of Refuge for Ships in Distress Problems and Methods of Resolution By Anthony P. Morrison LEIDEN • BOSTON 2012 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Morrison, Anthony P. Places of refuge for ships in distress : problems and methods of resolution / by Anthony P. Morrison. p. cm. -- (Legal aspects of sustainable development ; 12) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-21889-5 (hardback : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-90-04-21888-8 (e-book) 1. Harbors of refuge. 2. Harbors--Law and legislation. 3. Harbors--Safety regulations. 4. Shipping--Safety measures. 5. Marine pollution--Law and legislation. 6. Maritime law. I. Title. K4198.M67 2012 343.09’62--dc23 2012014907 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.nl/brill-typeface. ISSN 1875-0923 ISBN 978 90 04 21889 5 (hardback) ISBN 978 90 04 21888 8 (e-book) Copyright 2012 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers and Martinus Nijhofff Publishers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Contents Series Editor’s Preface ..................................................................................................................xi Foreword .......................................................................................................................................xiii Acknowledgements .....................................................................................................................xv List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................xvii Chapter One Introduction and Overview .............................................................................1 Chapter Two The Places of Refuge Problem ........................................................................9 Introduction .................................................................................................................................9 What is a Place of Refuge? ........................................................................................................9 Customary Rights of Ships in Distress ................................................................................12 Changes to the Custom of Granting Refuge to Ships in Distress .................................14 Changes to the Shipping Industry ...................................................................................17 Growth of Environmental Consciousness and the Development of International Environmental Law .........................................................................21 Changes to International Maritime Law .......................................................................22 Changes to Salvage Law and the Salvage Industry......................................................24 Erika, Castor and Prestige........................................................................................................28 The Erika ................................................................................................................................28 The Castor ..............................................................................................................................32 The Prestige ...........................................................................................................................34 Efffects of Erika, Castor and Prestige on Places of Refuge ..........................................36 Interests Involved in the Places of Refuge Problem ........................................................38 Interests Concerned with Completion of Marine Adventure .................................38 Charterers .........................................................................................................................38 Shipowners .......................................................................................................................39 Cargo Owners...................................................................................................................41 Insurers of the Ship ........................................................................................................41 Cargo Insurers ..................................................................................................................42 Master and Crew .............................................................................................................43 Salvors ................................................................................................................................43 Interests Concerned with Preservation of the Marine and Coastal Environment .............................................................................................44 Coastal States ...................................................................................................................44 Environmental Pressure Groups .................................................................................45 Media .................................................................................................................................46 vi Contents Shipping Industry Regulators ...........................................................................................46 Flag States .........................................................................................................................47 Port States .........................................................................................................................48 Classifĳication Societies ..................................................................................................49 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................50 Chapter Three General Access to Ports in International Law .....................................53 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................53 Sovereignty over Internal Waters .........................................................................................53 Access to Ports ...........................................................................................................................56 Bilateral Treaties...................................................................................................................56 Multilateral Conventions ...................................................................................................58 Convention and Statute on the International Regime of Maritime Ports, 1923 ........................................................................................................................58 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 ..............................................61 Other Multilateral Conventions .......................................................................................62 Evidence of Custom from Judicial Decisions and National Legislation ....................64 Decisions of International Tribunals ..............................................................................64 National Legislation and Decisions of National Courts ............................................66 Australia .................................................................................................................................66 United States of America ...................................................................................................67 Canada ....................................................................................................................................69 United Kingdom ...................................................................................................................70 European Union ...................................................................................................................71 Opinions of International Jurists ..........................................................................................72 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................72 Chapter Four Access to Ports by Ships in Distress in International Law .................75 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................75 What is Meant by ‘Port’ and ‘Distress’? ...............................................................................76 Evidence of Custom from Early Trade Relations between Maritime States .............77 Evidence of Custom from Bilateral Treaties ......................................................................80 Bilateral Treaties of Great Britain and the United States of America ....................82 Bilateral Treaties of the Former British Empire ...........................................................90 Bilateral Treaties of Other States .....................................................................................94 Efffect of Bilateral Treaties on Customary International Law...................................94 Ships in Distress under Multilateral Conventions ...........................................................96 Convention and Statute on the International Regime of Maritime Ports 1923 .........................................................................................................................96 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 ...........................................100 International Convention on Salvage 1989 .................................................................104 International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation 1990 .................................................................................................106 Contents vii International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties 1973 ................................................................106 Evidence of Custom from Judicial Decisions .................................................................107 Decisions of International Arbitral Bodies ................................................................108 Decisions of the United States Courts .........................................................................112 Decisions of the English Courts ....................................................................................115 Decisions of the Canadian Courts ................................................................................117 Decisions of the Netherlands Courts ...........................................................................120 Decisions of the Irish Courts .........................................................................................122 State Practice ...........................................................................................................................123 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................125 Chapter Five International Responses to Places of Refuge Problem .....................127 Introduction ............................................................................................................................127 Places of Refuge as an International Problem ...............................................................128 Actions on Places of Refuge by the International Maritime Organisation ............130 IMO Guidelines on Places of Refuge for Ships in Need of Assistance ...........................144 Structure of the IMO Guidelines ....................................................................................146 General Provisions ............................................................................................................146 Actions Required by the Master and/or Salvors .......................................................151 Actions Expected of Coastal States ..............................................................................153 Actions of IMO on Places of Refuge after Adoption of IMO Guidelines ............................................................................................................................159 Assessment of the Guidelines .............................................................................................160 Benefĳits ................................................................................................................................161 Disadvantages ....................................................................................................................163 Action on Places of Refuge by other International Organisations ...........................165 Comite Maritime International (CMI) ........................................................................166 International Association of Ports and Harbors (IAPH) ........................................169 Shipping Industry Associations ....................................................................................171 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................173 Chapter Six National Responses to Places of Refuge Problem .................................177 Introduction ............................................................................................................................177 The United Kingdom ............................................................................................................178 Legislation...........................................................................................................................179 Harbours, Docks and Piers Clauses Act 1847.........................................................179 Dangerous Vessels Act 1985 .......................................................................................180 Merchant Shipping Act 1995 .....................................................................................181 Command and Control ...................................................................................................183 International Arrangements ..........................................................................................187 Incidents involving Places of Refuge ...........................................................................188 Assessment of the United Kingdom Position on Places of Refuge ......................189 viii Contents Australia ...................................................................................................................................191 Maritime Jurisdiction in Australia ...............................................................................192 Legislation Afffecting Places of Refuge ........................................................................193 Commonwealth Legislation ......................................................................................193 State and Northern Territory Legislation...............................................................201 Administrative Arrangements Relating to Places of Refuge .................................203 National Plan.................................................................................................................204 Guidelines on Places of Refuge ................................................................................205 State Guidelines ...........................................................................................................205 Queensland...............................................................................................................205 New South Wales ....................................................................................................207 Western Australia ....................................................................................................208 National Guidelines ....................................................................................................208 Introductory Provisions and Defĳinitions ..........................................................209 Requests for Place of Refuge ................................................................................213 Decision Making Process ......................................................................................213 Management Issues ................................................................................................214 Incidents involving Places of Refuge ...........................................................................215 Daishowa Maru ........................................................................................................215 Iron Baron .................................................................................................................216 Eurydice .....................................................................................................................216 Wunma .......................................................................................................................218 Assessment of the Australian Position on Places of Refuge ..................................218 Canada ......................................................................................................................................220 Maritime Jurisdiction ......................................................................................................220 Treatment of Places of Refuge .......................................................................................221 Introductory Provisions .............................................................................................221 Authority for Directing Ships ...................................................................................222 Responsibility for Decisions and Decision Making ............................................222 Decision Making Process ...........................................................................................225 International Arrangements ..........................................................................................226 Canada/United States .................................................................................................226 Canada/France .............................................................................................................228 Canada/Denmark ........................................................................................................229 Assessment of the Canadian Position on Places of Refuge ...................................230 United States of America .....................................................................................................233 Federal Legislation on Oil Pollution and Places of Refuge ....................................233 State Legislation on Oil Pollution and Places of Refuge .........................................240 National Contingency Plan ............................................................................................244 Guidelines on Places of Refuge .....................................................................................246 Regional and Area Guidelines ..................................................................................246 National Guidelines ....................................................................................................248 Introduction .............................................................................................................248 Contents ix Appendix 1—Incident-Specifĳic Places of Refuge Decision-Making Process.................................................................................250 Appendix 2—Potential Stakeholders ...............................................................252 Appendix 3—Process for Pre-identifĳication of Potential Places of Refuge ...............................................................................252 United States Coast Guard Places of Refuge Policy ............................................253 Common Features and Diffferences between NRT Guidelines and USCG Policy .....................................................................................................256 International Arrangements ..........................................................................................258 United States/Canada .................................................................................................258 United States/Mexico .................................................................................................259 Incidents Involving Places of Refuge ...........................................................................260 M/V Tong Cheng ............................................................................................................260 Assessment of the United States Position on Places of Refuge. ...........................261 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................264 Chapter Seven Regional Response to Places of Refuge Problem .............................267 Introduction ............................................................................................................................267 Regional Arrangements ........................................................................................................267 The Regional Approach Concept ......................................................................................268 The European Union .............................................................................................................270 The European Union’s Approach to Places of Refuge .............................................271 Other Regional Arrangements ...........................................................................................276 Bonn Agreement.................................................................................................................276 Places of Refuge under the Bonn Agreement .............................................................278 Helsinki Convention ..........................................................................................................278 Places of Refuge under the Helsinki Convention .......................................................279 Assessment of the Role of Regional Arrangements ......................................................281 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................283 Chapter Eight A Convention on Places of Refuge as a Solution ...............................285 Introduction ............................................................................................................................285 Potential of and Need for a Discrete Convention..........................................................286 CMI Draft Instrument ...........................................................................................................288 Contents of Draft Instrument ........................................................................................290 Preamble .............................................................................................................................291 Defĳinitions ..........................................................................................................................291 Object and Purpose ..........................................................................................................294 Legal Obligation to Grant Access to a Place of Refuge ...........................................295 Guarantees ..........................................................................................................................297 Immunity from Liability for Granting Access and Liability for Refusing Access ............................................................................................................299 Reasonable Conduct ........................................................................................................301 x Contents Plans to Accommodate Ships Seeking Assistance ...................................................301 Identifĳication of Competent Authority ......................................................................302 Assessment of the CMI Draft Instrument .......................................................................302 Benefĳits ................................................................................................................................302 Disadvantages ....................................................................................................................303 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................304 Chapter Nine Factors Affecting a Response to Places of Refuge Problem ...........307 Introduction ............................................................................................................................307 Improved Industry Performance .......................................................................................308 Double Hull and Ship Replacement ............................................................................309 The United States Initiatives .....................................................................................309 International Maritime Organisation Initiatives ................................................310 The European Union Initiatives ..............................................................................311 Unilateral Action by other Coastal States .............................................................312 Ship Design .........................................................................................................................313 Efffect of Double Hulls Replacement and Ship Design on Places of Refuge......313 Improved Industry Regulation ...........................................................................................316 Flag State Control .............................................................................................................317 Efffect on Places of Refuge of Actions to Improve Flag State Control .................319 Port State Control .............................................................................................................320 Efffect on Places of Refuge of Actions to Improve Port State Control .................322 Classifĳication Societies ....................................................................................................323 Efffect on Places of Refuge of Actions to Improve Classifĳication Societies ........326 Issues of Liability, Compensation and Limitation ........................................................326 Subject Coverage ...............................................................................................................327 Liability for Damage .........................................................................................................328 Compensation for ‘Pure Economic Loss’ ....................................................................329 Compensation for Damage to the Environment per se ..........................................331 Defences Available under International Conventions ...........................................335 Limitation of Liability......................................................................................................337 Amending IMO Guidelines .............................................................................................339 Incentives for Coastal States to Use the IMO Guidelines .............................................345 Liability for Cross Boundary Environmental Harm .....................................................347 International Obligations to Protect the Environment ..........................................348 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................350 Chapter Ten Conclusions ......................................................................................................353 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................359 Index ...............................................................................................................................................401