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MODERN PROBLEMS IN CONDENSED MATTER SCIENCES Volume 13 Series editors V.M. AGRANOVICH Moscow, USSR A.A. MARADUDIN Irvine, California, USA Advisory editorial board F. Abeles, Paris, France N. Bloembergen, Cambridge, MA, USA E. Burstein, Philadelphia, PA, USA I.L. Fabelinskii, Moscow, USSR M.D. Galanin, Moscow, USSR V.L. Ginzburg, Moscow, USSR H. Haken, Stuttgart, FRG R.M. Hochstrasser, Philadelphia, PA, USA LP. Ipatova, Leningrad, USSR A.A. Kaplyanskii, Leningrad, USSR L.V. Keldysh, Moscow, USSR R. Kubo, Tokyo, Japan R. Loudon, Colchester, UK L.P. Pitaevskii, Moscow, USSR A.M. Prokhorov, Moscow, USSR K.K. Rebane, Tallinn, USSR NORTH-HOLLAND AMSTERDAM OXFORD NEW YORK TOKYO PHYSICS OF RADIATION EFFECTS IN CRYSTALS Volume editors R.A. JOHNSON Charlottesville, VA, USA A.N. ORLOV Leningrad, USSR 1986 NORTH-HOLLAND AMSTERDAM OXFORD NEW YORK TOKYO © Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher, Elsevier Science Publishers Β. V. (North- Holland Physics Publishing Division), P.O. Box 103, WOO AC Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Special regulations for readers in the USA: This publication has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCC), Salem, Massachusetts. Information can be obtained from the CCC about conditions under which photocopies of parts of this publication may be made in the USA. All other copyright questions, including photocopying outside of the USA, should be referred to the publisher. ISBN: 0444869468 Published by: North-Holland Physics Publishing a division of Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. P.O. Box 103 1000 AC Amsterdam The Netherlands Sole distributors for the U.S.A. and Canada: Elsevier Science Publishing Company, Inc. 52 Vanderbilt Avenue New York, N.Y. 10017 U.S.A. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: Physics of radiation effects in crystals. (Modern problems in condensed matter sciences; v. 13) Bibliography: p. Includes indexes. 1. Solids-Effect of radiation on. 2. Crystals-Effect of radiation on. 3. Metals-Effect of radiation on. I. Johnson, R.A. II. Orlov, A.N. III. Series. QC176.8.R3P47 1986 530.4Ί 85-28396 ISBN 0-444-86946-8 Printed in The Netherlands MODERN PROBLEMS IN CONDENSED MATTER SCIENCES Vol. 1. SURFACE POLARITONS V.M. Agranovich and D.L. Mills, editors Vol. 2. EXCITONS E.I. Rashba and M.D. Sturge, editors Vol. 3. ELECTRONIC EXCITATION ENERGY TRANSFER IN CONDENSED MATTER V.M. Agranovich and M.D. Galanin Vol. 4. SPECTROSCOPY AND EXCITATION DYNAMICS OF CONDENSED MOLECULAR SYSTEMS V.M. Agranovich and R.M. Hochstrasser, editors Vol. 5. LIGHT SCATTERING NEAR PHASE TRANSITIONS H.Z. Cummins and A.P. Levanyuk, editors Vol. 6. ELECTRON-HOLE DROPLETS IN SEMICONDUCTORS CD. Jeffries and L.V. Keldysh, editors Vol. 7. THE DYNAMICAL JAHN-TELLER EFFECT IN LOCALIZED SYSTEMS Yu.E. Perlin and M. Wagner, editors Vol. 8. OPTICAL ORIENTATION F. Meier and B.P. Zakharchenya, editors Vol. 9. SURFACE EXCITATIONS V.M. Agranovich and R. Loudon, editors Vol. 10. ELECTRON-ELECTRON INTERACTIONS IN DISORDERED SYSTEMS A.L. Efros and M. Pollak, editors Vol. 11. MEDIUM-ENERGY ION REFLECTION FROM SOLIDS E.S. Mashkova and V.A. Molchanov MODERN PROBLEMS IN CONDENSED MATTER SCIENCES Vol. 12. NONEQUILIBRIUM SUPERCONDUCTIVITY D.N. Langenberg and A.I. Larkin, editors Vol. 13. PHYSICS OF RADIATION EFFECTS IN CRYSTALS R.A. Johnson and A.N. Orlov, editors Vol. 14. INCOMMENSURATE PHASES IN DIELECTRICS (Two volumes) R. Blinc and A.P. Levanyuk, editors In preparation Vol. 15. UNITARY TRANSFORMATIONS IN SOLID STATE PHYSICS M. Wagner vi Oh, how many of them there are in the fields! But each flowers in its own way— In this is the highest achievement of a flower! Matsuo Basho 1644-1694 PREFACE TO THE SERIES Our understanding of condensed matter is developing rapidly at the present time, and the numerous new insights gained in this field define to a significant degree the face of contemporary science. Furthermore, discoveries made in this area are shaping present and future technology. This being so, it is clear that the most important results and directions for future developments can only be covered by an international group of authors working in cooperation. "Modern Problems in Condensed Matter Sciences" is a series of contributed volumes and monographs on condensed matter science that is published by North-Holland Physics Publishing, a division of Elsevier Science Publishers. With the support of a distinguished Advisory Editorial Board, areas of current interest that have reached a maturity to be reviewed, are selected for the series. Both Soviet and Western scholars are contributing to the series, and each contributed volume has, accordingly, two editors. Monographs, written by either Western or Soviet authors, are also included. The complete series will provide the most comprehensive coverage available of condensed matter science. Another important outcome of the foundation of this series is the emergence of a rather interesting and fruitful form of collaboration among scholars from different countries. We are deeply convinced that such international collaboration in the spheres of science and art, as well as other socially useful spheres of human activity, will assist in the establishment of a climate of confidence and peace. The publishing house "Nauka" publishes the volumes in the Russian language. This way the broadest possible readership is ensured. The General Editors of the Series, V.M. Agranovich A.A. Maradudin vii PREFACE The interaction of radiation with matter has played a basic role in the history of modern physics. Rutherford developed the nuclear atom hypothesis as an explanation of the experiments by Geiger and Marsden on the scattering of α-particles by metal foils. Laue proposed the use of crystals as diffraction gratings for X-rays, and following the suggestion of matter waves by de Broglie, Davisson and Germer demonstrate^ electron diffraction by crystals. The advent of the "atomic age" with the attendant research into the effect of radiation on solids gave rise to a field of study commonly referred to as radiation damage. The problems were no longer academic, but of immediate practical concern in the development of the nuclear industry. Since radiation can produce beneficial changes as well as material degradation, the terminology "radiation effects" is now preferred for this subject. Radiation effects in crystals refers to any changes in defect structure, composition, phases, microstructure, or physical properties caused by irradiation which produces defects in the atomic crystal structure. This volume on modern problems in condensed matter sciences is presented in two sections. The first part covers the general background and theory of radiation effects in crystals while specific problems of current interest are treated in the second part. The first chapter, Basic Defects in Metals, by Ehrhart, Robrock and Schober, is an introduction to the physics of crystal lattice defects, the basic entities created by radiation and which lead to radiation effects. The second, Production of Radiation Defects by Collision Cascades in Metals, by Agranovich ^nd Kirsanov, concerns the theory by which crystal lattice defects are created by radiation. Irradiation, by producing lattice defects, drives a crystal away from thermodynamic equilibrium. The chapter by Bullough and Wood, Theory of Microstructural Evolution, presents the kinetic approach to the study of the disposition of these defects, while Wiedersich, in Phase Stability and Solute Segregation During Irradiation ix Preface χ summarizes research into the effects of the diffusion of these defects on alloy compositions and phases. The first four chapters of the second part of this volume cover topics associated with specific types of materials, and the last three chapters pertain to problems of technological interest in metals. Vinetskii and Kholodar discuss semiconductor radiation in a chapter entitled Quasichemical Reactions Involving Point Defects in Irradiated Semiconductors and Snead and Luhman have contributed a chapter on Radiation Damage and Stress Effects in Superconductors: Materials for High-Field Applications. Clinard and Hobbs summarize Radiation Effects in Non-Metals with a primary emphasis on ceramic materials while Lushchik presents the details of the Creation of Frenkel Defect Pairs by Excitons in Alkali Halides. Three problems associated with nuclear reactor technology are reviewed in the final three chapters. Zelensky and Reznichenko discuss anisotropic dimensional changes in α-uranium, zirconium, and graphite in a chapter Irradiation Growth of Metals and Alloys and Slyozov and Bereznyak cover the acceleration of thermal creep in reactor materials with Irradiation Creep in Metals. In the final chapter, Blistering, Guseva and Martynenko summarize research on exfoliation and the formation of bubbles at the surfaces of reactor materials. R.A. Johnson A.N. Orlov Charlottesville, VA, USA Leningrad, USSR CHAPTER 1 Basic Defects in Metals P. EHRHART, K.H. ROBROCK and H.R. SCHOBER Institut fur Festkorperforschung der Kernforschungsanlage Jiilich, Postfach 1913, 5170 Julich, W-Germany Physics of Radiation Effects in Crystals Edited by © Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1986 R.A. Johnson and A.N. Orlov 3 Contents Introduction · 7 1. Theory of point defects 8 1.1. Theoretical methods 8 1.1.1. Electronic calculations 8 1.1.2. Interatomic potentials 10 1.1.3. Green's function methods for structural calculations (lattice statics, continuum limit) 14 1.1.4. Computer simulation 16 1.1.5. Defect dynamics 18 1.2. Theoretical results 19 1.2.1. Defect structures in pure metals 19 1.2.2. Defect dynamics in pure metals 29 1.2.3. Defects in dilute alloys 34 2. Experimental methods 39 2.1. Residual electrical resistivity 39 2.2. X-ray techniques 41 2.2.1. Changes of the lattice parameter and length changes 42 2.2.2. Diffuse scattering 42 2.2.3. EXAFS 47 2.3. Relaxation techniques 48 2.3.1. Mechanical relaxation (elastic after-effect, internal friction, ultrasonic attenu ation) 48 2.3.2. Magnetic relaxation 52 2.4. Nuclear methods 54 2.4.1. Mossbauer effect measurements 54 2.4.2. Perturbed angular correlation (PAC) 55 2.4.3. Positron annihilation 56 2.4.4. Muon spin rotation experiments ^SR) 57 2.5. Channeling measurements 58 2.6. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 59 4