Physics and technology of crystalline oxide semiconductor CAAC-IGZO. Fundamentals PDF
Preview Physics and technology of crystalline oxide semiconductor CAAC-IGZO. Fundamentals
PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF CRYSTALLINE OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR CAAC-IGZO Wiley-SID Series in Display Technology Series Editors: Anthony C. Lowe and IanSage DisplaySystems:DesignandApplications LindsayW.MacDonaldandAnthonyC.Lowe(Eds.) ElectronicDisplayMeasurement:Concepts,Techniques,andInstrumentation PeterA.Keller ReflectiveLiquidCrystalDisplays Shin-TsonWuandDeng-KeYang ColourEngineering:AchievingDeviceIndependentColour PhilGreenandLindsayMacDonald(Eds.) DisplayInterfaces:FundamentalsandStandards RobertL.Myers DigitalImageDisplay:AlgorithmsandImplementation GheorgheBerbecel FlexibleFlatPanelDisplays GregoryCrawford(Ed.) PolarizationEngineeringforLCDProjection MichaelG.Robinson,JianminChen,andGaryD.Sharp IntroductiontoMicrodisplays DavidArmitage,IanUnderwood,andShin-TsonWu MobileDisplays:TechnologyandApplications AchintyaK.Bhowmik,ZiliLi,andPhilipBos(Eds.) PhotoalignmentofLiquidCrystallineMaterials:PhysicsandApplications VladimirG.Chigrinov,VladimirM.Kozenkov,andHoi-SingKwok ProjectionDisplays,SecondEdition MatthewS.BrennesholtzandEdwardH.Stupp IntroductiontoFlatPanelDisplays Jiun-HawLee,DavidN.Liu,andShin-TsonWu LCDBacklights ShunsukeKobayashi,ShigeoMikoshiba,andSungkyooLim(Eds.) LiquidCrystalDisplays:AddressingSchemesandElectro-OpticalEffects,SecondEdition ErnstLueder TransflectiveLiquidCrystalDisplays ZhibingGeandShin-TsonWu LiquidCrystalDisplays:FundamentalPhysicsandTechnology RobertH.Chen 3DDisplays ErnstLueder OLEDDisplayFundamentalsandApplications TakatoshiTsujimura Illumination,ColorandImaging:EvaluationandOptimizationofVisualDisplays PeterBodrogiandTranQuocKhanh InteractiveDisplays:NaturalHuman-InterfaceTechnologies AchintyaK.Bhowmik(Ed.) AddressingTechniquesofLiquidCrystalDisplays TemkarN.Ruckmongathan FundamentalsofLiquidCrystalDevices,SecondEdition Deng-KeYangandShin-TsonWu ModelingandOptimizationofLCDOpticalPerformance DmitryA.Yakovlev,VladimirG.Chigrinov,andHoi-SingKwok PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF CRYSTALLINE OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR CAAC-IGZO FUNDAMENTALS Edited by Noboru Kimizuka Kimizuka Institute for NaturalPhilosophy,Poland Shunpei Yamazaki Semiconductor Energy Laboratory Co., Ltd,Japan Thiseditionfirstpublished2017 ©2017JohnWiley&Sons,Ltd RegisteredOffice JohnWiley&Sons,Ltd,TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,WestSussex,PO198SQ,UnitedKingdom Fordetailsofourglobaleditorialoffices,forcustomerservicesandforinformationabouthowtoapplyfor permissiontoreusethecopyrightmaterialinthisbookpleaseseeourwebsiteatwww.wiley.com. TherightoftheauthorstobeidentifiedastheauthorsofthisworkhasbeenassertedinaccordancewiththeCopyright, DesignsandPatentsAct1988. Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,in anyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,exceptaspermittedbytheUK Copyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988,withoutthepriorpermissionofthepublisher. Wileyalsopublishesitsbooksinavarietyofelectronicformats.Somecontentthatappearsinprintmaynotbeavailable inelectronicbooks. Designationsusedbycompaniestodistinguishtheirproductsareoftenclaimedastrademarks.Allbrandnames andproductnamesusedinthisbookaretradenames,servicemarks,trademarksorregisteredtrademarksoftheir respectiveowners.Thepublisherisnotassociatedwithanyproductorvendormentionedinthisbook. LimitofLiability/DisclaimerofWarranty:Whilethepublisherandauthorshaveusedtheirbesteffortsinpreparingthis book,theymakenorepresentationsorwarrantieswithrespecttotheaccuracyorcompletenessofthecontentsof thisbookandspecificallydisclaimanyimpliedwarrantiesofmerchantabilityorfitnessforaparticularpurpose.Itissold ontheunderstandingthatthepublisherisnotengagedinrenderingprofessionalservicesandneitherthepublisher northeauthorsshallbeliablefordamagesarisingherefrom.Ifprofessionaladviceorotherexpertassistanceisrequired, theservicesofacompetentprofessionalshouldbesought LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Names:Yamazaki,Shunpei,1942–author.|Kimizuku,Noboru,1940–author. Title:PhysicsandtechnologyofcrystallineoxidesemiconductorCAAC-IGZO. Fundamentals/ShunpeiYamazaki,NoboruKimizuku. Othertitles:WileySIDseriesindisplaytechnology. Description:Chichester,UK;Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,2016.| Series:Wiley-sidseriesindisplaytechnology|Includesindex. Identifiers:LCCN2016022217(print)|LCCN2016033467(ebook)|ISBN9781119247401(cloth)| ISBN9781119247364(pdf)|ISBN9781119247371(epub) Subjects:LCSH:Semiconductors–Materials.|Semiconductors–Characterization.|Galliumcompounds.| Zinccompounds. Classification:LCCTK7871.85.Y35762016(print)|LCCTK7871.85(ebook)|DDC621.3815/2–dc23 LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2016022217 AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. Setin10/12ptTimesbySPiGlobal,Pondicherry,India 1 2017 Contents About the Editors ix List of Contributors xi Series Editor’sForeword xii Preface xiv Acknowledgments xvii Introduction xviii 1 Layered Compounds in the In O –Ga O –ZnO System and Related 2 3 2 3 Compounds in theTernary System 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Syntheses and Phase Equilibrium Diagrams 3 1.2.1 Phase Equilibrium Diagrams in the System R O −Fe O −FeO 2 3 2 3 (R=Yand Yb) 4 1.2.2 Phase Equilibrium Diagram for the System In O −A O −BO 2 3 2 3 (A=Ga and Fe;B=Zn, Mg,Cu, and Co) 6 1.2.3 Phase Equilibrium Diagram of the System In O –A O –ZnO 2 3 2 3 (A=Fe andAl) 12 1.2.4 Other Layered-Structure Compounds 16 1.3 Crystal Structures 16 1.3.1 CrystalStructures of InGaO (ZnO) (m =1,2, 3,and 4) 17 3 m 1.3.2 Lattice Constants of InAO (ZnO) (A = In, Fe, Ga, and Al) 30 3 m 1.3.3 Structural Characteristics of RAO (BO) Crystals 35 3 m 1.4 Latest Topics in Crystalline IGZO 37 1.4.1 Interest in Non-conventional Compounds, InGaO (ZnO) 3 m (m: non-integral number) 37 1.4.2 CrystalStructures and Local Structures 38 1.4.3 Atomic Distributionin Crystalline IGZO(1:1:1.5) 41 1.4.4 Influence of Composition of Crystalline IGZO 41 vi Contents Appendix 1.A High-Angle Annular Dark-Field Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy and Annular Bright-Field ScanningTransmission Electron Microscopy 43 1.A.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy 43 1.A.2 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy 44 References 46 2 Systematic View of CAAC-IGZO and OtherCrystalline IGZO Thin Films 50 2.1 Introduction 50 2.2 Fabrication Process 53 2.2.1 Features of CAAC-IGZO 54 2.2.2 Relation between Deposition Conditions and Crystallinity 54 2.2.3 Comparisonwith Other Apparatus 61 2.2.4 2D-XRD Analysis 62 2.2.5 Inhibition of Crystal Growthby Impurities 66 2.2.6 Summary 69 2.3 StructuralAnalysis 70 2.3.1 Features of CAAC-IGZO 70 2.3.2 Structural Analysis byTEM 72 2.3.3 Evaluation of Crystal Morphology in CAAC-IGZO 77 2.3.4 Summary 83 2.4 Deposition Mechanism 84 2.4.1 Introduction 84 2.4.2 Formation of Nanoclusters in CAAC-IGZO Thin Films 88 2.4.3 Lateral Growth Model of IGZO Nanoclusters 91 2.4.4 Discussion onGrowth Mechanism 94 2.4.5 Summary 98 2.5 StructuralStability 98 2.5.1 Introduction 98 2.5.2 Electron DiffractionAnalysis of CAAC-IGZOand nc-IGZO Films 99 2.5.3 NBED Analysis of Nanoscale Region in nc-IGZO Film 100 2.5.4 Stability Against Electron-Beam Irradiation 102 2.5.5 Measurement of Nanoclusters in CAAC-IGZO andnc-IGZO Films 104 2.5.6 Influence of DepositionPressure on Density of IGZO Film 108 2.5.7 Chemical Stability 112 2.5.8 Summary 114 2.6 Single-Crystal and Polycrystalline IGZO 115 2.6.1 Introduction 115 2.6.2 Crystalline IGZO Formed byThermal Annealing 115 2.6.3 Crystalline IGZO Fabricated byLaser Annealing 118 2.7 Researching More Highly Functional IGZO Material 125 2.7.1 Homologous Series of IGZO 125 2.7.2 ConstituentElements of IGZO and their Influence on Properties 129 2.7.3 Selection of High-MobilityIGZO Material in Terms of Solid-SolutionRegion 130 2.7.4 Evaluation Results of IGZO (In:Ga:Zn=4:2:3) Film 130 2.7.5 CAAC-IGZO FET Characteristics of IGZO(4:2:3) 134 2.7.6 Summary 134 Contents vii Appendix 2.A Discovery of CAAC-IGZO 135 Appendix 2.B Selected-Area Electron Diffraction and Nano-Beam Electron Diffraction 137 2.B.1 DiffractionMethod 137 2.B.2 ElectronDiffraction 138 Appendix 2.C Electron Diffraction Simulation of IGZO 142 Appendix 2.D Quantitative Evaluation of Alignment of IGZO Using NBED Method 143 Appendix 2.E Crystallinity of IGZO Thin Film Depositedby Pulsed Laser Deposition 147 2.E.1 Introduction 147 2.E.2 Crystallinity of IGZO Thin Film DepositedbyPulsedLaser Deposition 148 References 150 3 Fundamental Properties of IGZO 153 3.1 Introduction 153 3.2 Band Structure 155 3.2.1 Introduction 155 3.2.2 Optical Characteristics and Bandgap 155 3.2.3 BandStructure and Effective Mass 158 3.2.4 Summary 161 3.3 Defect Levels in IGZO Bandgaps 161 3.3.1 Introduction 161 3.3.2 Evaluation of Oxygen Vacancy and Defect Levelsin IGZO Thin Films 162 3.3.3 Low-Temperature Photoluminescence 163 3.3.4 Constant Photocurrent Method 163 3.3.5 DeepDefect Level by Calculation 167 3.3.6 Oxygen Vacancy andCrystallinity of IGZO 170 3.3.7 Observations of Oxygen in IGZO 174 3.3.8 Summary 177 3.4 Origin of Main Donor 179 3.4.1 Introduction 179 3.4.2 Relationship between Hydrogen Concentration and Conductivity 179 3.4.3 Quantitative Relationship betweenCarrier and Hydrogen Concentrations 182 3.4.4 Stable Structure for Coexistenceof Oxygen Vacancyand Hydrogen 183 3.4.5 EnergyLevel of Donor States 184 3.4.6 ThermalStability of Hydrogen Substituting Oxygen 185 3.4.7 Summary 189 3.5 Electrical Conduction Mechanisms 190 3.5.1 Introduction 190 3.5.2 Dominant Scattering Center in Crystalline IGZO 191 3.5.3 Theoretical Model of Electron Mobility for In-Rich IGZO 194 3.5.4 Conclusion and Some Ideas for Conduction Mechanisms in IGZO 198 3.6 Summary 199 viii Contents Appendix 3.A X-Ray Reflectivity andConstant Photocurrent Method 200 3.A.1 X-Ray Reflectivity 200 3.A.2 Constant Photocurrent Method 202 Appendix 3.B First-Principles Calculation Methods 205 3.B.1 Search for Stable Distributionof Ga and Zn Atoms in InGaZnO 206 4 3.B.2 Formation of AmorphousIGZO Model 209 3.B.3 Defect Valuation byCalculation 211 References 214 4 CAAC-IGZO Field-Effect Transistor 216 4.1 Physics of MOSFETs 216 4.1.1 Classification of MOSFETs 217 4.1.2 Operating Mechanism of CAAC-IGZO FET 219 4.1.3 FET Characteristics and Performance Indexes 229 4.2 Electrical Characteristics of CAAC-IGZO FET 232 4.2.1 Current–Voltage Characteristics of CAAC-IGZO FET 232 4.2.2 Normally-Off Threshold Voltage of CAAC-IGZO FET 235 4.2.3 Extremely Low Off-State Current of CAAC-IGZO FET 237 4.2.4 Frequency Characteristics of CAAC-IGZO FET 254 4.3 Comparison betweenCAAC-IGZO and Si FETs 258 4.3.1 Off-State Current 259 4.3.2 Saturation Characteristics 260 4.3.3 Short-ChannelEffects 263 4.4 Advantages of CAAC-IGZO as FET Material 266 4.4.1 Effects of CAAC Morphology on IGZO Thin-Film and FET Characteristics 266 4.4.2 Application to Large-Sized Devices 272 4.4.3 Multi-layeredCAAC-IGZO 274 4.4.4 Impurity Blocking Effects of CAAC-IGZO 280 4.5 Summary 281 References 282 5 Device Application UsingCAAC-IGZO 285 5.1 Introduction 285 5.2 CAAC-IGZO FETs 286 5.2.1 Bottom-Gate Top-ContactStructure 287 5.2.2 Top-Gate Top-Contact Structure 292 5.2.3 Top-Gate Self-alignedStructure 293 5.2.4 Summary 297 5.3 Application to LSI 298 5.4 Application to Displays 304 5.5 Market Prospects 309 References 309 Appendix: Unit Prefix 311 Index 312 About the Editors NoboruKimizukaisdirectoroftheKimizukaInstituteforNaturalPhilosophyinPolandand an adviser to Semiconductor Energy Laboratory Co., Ltd. He received a Doctor of Science degree from Tokyo Institute of Technology. He joined the National Institute for Research in InorganicMaterials(NIRIM)oftheScienceandTechnologyAgencyin1967(thislaterbecame theNationalInstituteforMaterialsScience).In1985,hesynthesizedcrystallineIGZOforthe firsttimeintheworldatNIRIM.HethendevotedhimselftodevelopinghomologousIGZOfor aboutthenexttenyears.AfterleavingNIRIM,heservedasaresearcherandvisitingprofessor, teaching young people at universities in the USA, UK, Mexico, Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan. He is a member of the Chemical Society of Japan, the Ceramic Society of Japan, the Physical Society of Japan, andthe American Ceramic Society. He is a resident of Poland. 1967 CompletedMaster’sDegreeProgramatWasedaUniversityFacultyofScience and Engineering 1967–1994 NationalInstituteforResearchinInorganicMaterials,ScienceandTechnology Agency 1994–1995:Guest Researcher April 1983: Group Leader April 1975: Senior Researcher April 1967: Engineering Official of General Administrative Agency of the Cabinet 1969 AwardedbyJoint Committee onPowder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS) 1969–1970 Foreign Researcher, Department of Materials Science,Pennsylvania State University (USA) 1977 Ceramographic Award of the Ceramic Society of Japan 1979–1980 ForeignResearcher,DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,UniversityofTexas at Austin (USA) 1993–1994 Instructor, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Science and Engineeringof Tokyo Institute of Technology 1994 Foreign Researcher, Department of Chemistry, University of Aberdeen (UK) x AbouttheEditors 1994 Award bythe Minister of the Science and Technology Agency of Japan 1994–1996 DispatchedLong-TermExpert,JapanInternationalCooperationAgency(JICA) 1994–2001 Research Professor, Universidad de Sonora (Mexico) 2001–2003 Visiting Scholar, Ceramic Material Research Institute, Hanyang University (South Korea) 2003–2005 Guest Researcher, National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS) 2006 Guest Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering & Material Science, Yuan Ze University (Taiwan) 2009–2010 GuestProfessor,DepartmentofPhysics,FacultyofScience,OkayamaUniversity 2013 Guest Professor, Universidad de Sonora (Mexico) Shunpei Yamazaki received his Ph.D., ME, BE, and honorary degrees from Doshisha University,Japan,in1971,1967,1965,and2011,respectively,andisthefounderandpresident of Semiconductor Energy Laboratory Co., Ltd. He invented a basic device structure of non- volatile memory known as “flash memory” in 1970 during his Ph.D. program. Yamazaki is a distinguished foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences and a founder of Kato & Yamazaki Educational Foundation. Yamazaki has published or co-publishedover400papersandconferencepresentationsandistheinventororco-inventor of over6314 patents (Guinness World Record in 2011). 1967 Completed Master’s Degree Program at Doshisha University Graduate School of Engineering 1970 Invented a basic device of flash memory (Japanese Patent No. 886343; Japanese Examined Patent Application Publication No. Sho50-36955) 1971 Received Ph.D. in Engineering from Doshisha University Graduate School Doctoral Program Joined TDK Corporation (formerlyTDK Electronics Co., Ltd.) 1980 EstablishedSemiconductor Energy Laboratory Co., Ltd. andassumed position as president 1984 Awardedthe Richard M.Fulrath Award by the AmericanCeramic Society (for research onMIS structure) 1995 AwardedtheMedalwithDarkBlueRibbonfromtheCabinetOffice oftheJapanese government (proceeds givento Japanese Red Cross Society) (awarded 6 times since 2015) 1997 Awardedthe Medal with Purple Ribbon from the Cabinet Office of the Japanese government (for development of MOS LSI element technology) 2009 IVA (Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Science) Foreign Member 2010 AwardedOkochi Memorial Technology Award from Okochi Memorial Foundation 2011 IEEE Life Fellow ReceivedHonorary Doctor Degree of Culture from Doshisha University Renewed his first Guinness World Record in 2004 (man holding the most patents in the world) 2015 Grantedthe title of “Friend of Doshisha” by Doshisha University 2015 SID Special Recognition Award for “discovering CAAC-IGZO semiconductors, leadingtheirpracticalapplication,andpavingthewaytonext-generationdisplaysby developing new information-display devices such as foldable or 8K×4Kdisplays”
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