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Physics and Chemistry of the Solar System SECOND EDITION Physics and Chemistry of the Solar System SECOND EDITION John S. Lewis Department of PlanetarySciences University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona · · · AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON · · · NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO · · · SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO AcquisitionEditor:FrankCynar ProjectManager:SarahManchester EditorialAssistant:JenniferHele´ MarketingManager:LindaBeattie CoverDesign:GaryRagaglia Composition:IntegraSoftwareServicesPvt.Ltd Printer:TheMaple-VailManufacturingGroup ElsevierAcademicPress 200WheelerRoad,Burlington,MA01803,USA 525BStreet,Suite1900,SanDiego,California92101-4495,USA 84Theobald’sRoad,LondonWC1X8RR,UK Thisbookisprintedonacid-freepaper. Copyright#2004,ELSEVIER,INC. AllRightsReserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyany means,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopy,recording,oranyinformation storageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher. PermissionsmaybesoughtdirectlyfromElsevier’sScience&Technology RightsDepartmentinOxford,UK:phone:(þ44)1865843830, fax:(þ44)1865853333,e-mail:[email protected]. Youmayalsocompleteyourrequeston-lineviatheElsevierSciencehomepage (http://elsevier.com),byselecting‘‘CustomerSupport’’andthen‘‘Obtaining Permissions.’’ LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Lewis,JohnS. Physicsandchemistryofthesolarsystem/JohnS.Lewis–2nded. p. cm.–(Internationalgeophysicsseries;v.87) Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN0-12-446744-X(acid-freepaper) 1. Solarsystem. 2. Planetology. 3. Astrophysics. 4. Cosmochemistry. I. Title. II. Series. QB501.L4972004 523.2–dc22 2003064281 BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:0-12-446744-X ForallinformationonallAcademicPresspublications visitourwebsiteatwww.academicpressbooks.com PRINTEDINTHEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA 04 05 06 07 08 09 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Dedication Thisbook isdedicated to thefoundersof Planetary Science: Rupert Wildt, Gerard P. Kuiper,and Harold C. Urey, whose thoughts roamed the Solar System before spacecraft did. Contents Foreword xi Outline of Star Formation 33 Stellar Explosions and Nucleosynthesis 34 Nuclear Cosmochronology 43 I Introduction Exercises 47 NatureandScope ofPlanetary Science 1 Guide tothe Literature 3 Numbersin Science 4 III General Description of Dimensions and Units 5 the Solar System Exercises 6 Introduction 50 The Sun 50 II Astronomical Perspective Orbitsofthe Planets 52 Changes inOrbital Motion 57 Introduction 7 Properties ofthe Planets 58 Distance Scales inthe Universe 7 Mass and AngularMomentum Distribution 59 The Big Bang 10 Satellites 63 Limitations on Big Bang Nucleosynthesis 14 Asteroids 69 GalaxyandStar Formation 15 Comets 71 StructureandClassification of Galaxies 16 Meteors 72 Classification of Stars 18 Meteorites 72 Stellar Evolution 25 CosmicDust 73 Star Clusters 27 CosmicRays 73 Stellar Origins 29 Planetary Science inthe Space Age 74 vii viii Contents Summary 76 TroposphericComposition and Structure: Exercises 76 Theory 159 Cloud Condensation in the NH –H O–H S 3 2 2 System 165 IV The Sun and the Solar Nebula Cloud Physics on the Jovian Planets 174 Galileo Perspectives on JovianClouds 179 Ion Production in the Jovian Atmosphere 180 Introduction 77 Visibleand Infrared Radiative Transfer 183 Energy Production in the Sun 77 Horizontal Structure and Energy Transportin theSun 79 Atmospheric Circulation 187 InternalStructureof the Sun 83 Photochemistry and Aeronomy 200 Surface of the Sun 84 The JovianThermosphere 217 The Chromosphere 87 Radiophysics and Magnetospheres ofJupiter The Corona 88 and Saturn 218 Discovery of theSolar Wind 90 The Interiors of Uranus and Neptune 229 Radio WavePropagation inSpacePlasmas 91 Atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune 238 The Solar Wind 92 Perspectives 247 Chemistryof Solar Material 96 Exercises 247 Ionization 97 Dissociationand MoleculeFormation 100 Hydrogen and the Rare Gases 101 Oxygen,Carbon, and Nitrogen 102 VI Pluto and the Icy Satellites of Magnesium and Silicon 105 the Outer Planets Iron 106 Sulfur 107 Introduction 252 Aluminum and Calcium 108 Surfaces ofIcy Satellites 253 Sodium and Potassium 109 Eclipse Radiometry 256 Nickeland Cobalt 110 Surface Temperatures 257 Phosphorus and theHalogens 111 Surface Morphologyof the Galilean GeochemicalClassificationoftheElements 111 Satellites 258 The Chemistry ofRapid Accretion 116 Densityand Compositionof Icy Satellites 265 Kinetic Inhibition 117 InternalThermal Structure ofGalilean Mass and Density ofthe Solar Nebula 118 Satellites 267 Thermal Opacity inthe Solar Nebula 121 Dynamical Interactionsof theGalilean Dust Opacity 129 Satellites 272 Thermal Structure of theNebula 131 Thermal and Tectonic Evolution of Icy Turbulence and DustSedimentation 134 Satellites 275 Accretion ofRocks,Planetesimals, Minor Satellites of Jupiter 278 and Planets 136 Planetary Rings 280 Gas Capturefrom theSolarNebula 138 Titan 289 The T TauriPhase 141 TheIntermediate-SizedSaturnianSatellites 293 ThermalHistoryoftheEarlySolarSystem 143 Minor Satellites of Saturn 296 Exercises 144 Satellites of Uranus 299 Satellites of Neptune 303 The Pluto–Charon System 308 V The Major Planets The Neptune–Pluto Resonance 311 SpacecraftExploration 311 Introduction 147 Exercises 312 Interiors ofJupiter and Saturn: Data 148 Isothermal Interior ModelsofJupiter and Saturn 151 VII Comets and Meteors Thermal Models of Jupiterand Saturn 154 The Atmospheres of JupiterandSaturn: HistoricalPerspectives 317 Observed Composition 156 Natureand Nomenclature of Comets 319 Contents ix Cometary Orbits 321 Io: GeneralProperties 430 Heating by Passing Stars 325 Io: Surface Processes 430 Evaporation and Nongravitational Forces 326 Io: Internal Energy Sources 432 The Nucleus and Comaof P/Halley 328 Io: Geology 433 Chemistryand Photochemistry of Water 328 Io: Atmospheric and VolcanicGases 435 Further Chemical Processes in the Coma Io: Escape and the Plasma Torus 437 and Tail 332 Io: Genetic Relationships 438 Behaviorof Small Particles 333 Impact Cratering 438 Dynamical Behavior of Dust in Space 334 Motions of theMoon 443 Meteors 336 Physical Propertiesof theMoon 445 Cometary Fireballs 343 ElementalComposition ofthe Moon’s Cometary Impactson Jupiter 344 Surface 445 Exercises 347 Lunar RockTypes 447 Lunar Minerals 449 Lunar Elemental AbundancePatterns 451 VIII Meteorites and Asteroids Geology of theMoon 451 Geophysics ofthe Moon 452 History of theEarth–Moon System 456 Introduction 350 OriginandInternalEvolutionoftheMoon 458 Introduction toMeteorites 350 Solar Wind Interaction with the Moon Meteorite Orbits 353 and Mercury 460 Phenomena ofFall 355 The PlanetMercury 461 Physical Properties of Meteorites 358 Motions of Mercury 461 Meteorite Minerals 362 Composition and Structure ofMercury 462 TaxonomyandCompositionofChondrites 362 Noncrater Geologyof Mercury 463 Metamorphic Grades of Chondrites 367 Geophysics ofMercury 463 TaxonomyandCompositionofAchondrites 369 Atmospheres of Mercury and the Moon 468 TaxonomyandCompositionofStony-Irons 371 Polar Depositson Mercury and the Moon 469 Taxonomy and Composition ofIrons 372 Unfinished Business 472 IsotopicCompositionof Meteorites 375 Exercises 474 GeneticRelationships between Meteorite Classes 382 Introduction toAsteroids 384 Asteroid Orbits 386 X The Terrestrial Planets: Mars, Stabilityof Trojanand Plutino Orbits 389 Venus, and Earth Sizes, Shapes, and Albedos ofAsteroids 391 Masses and Densitiesof Asteroids 393 Introduction 477 PhotometryandSpectroscopyofAsteroids 394 Mars 478 Thermal Evolution ofAsteroids 401 Motions of Mars 479 Dynamical Evolution of theAsteroid Belt 406 Densityand Figureof Mars 479 Centaursand Trans-Neptunian Objects 409 Geophysical Data on Mars 481 Relationships among Asteroids,Meteorites, Gravityand Tectonics of Mars 483 and Comets 412 Geology of Mars 483 RadarObservationsofNear-EarthAsteroids 415 Surface Composition 496 Asteroid Resources 416 VikingLander Investigations 503 Exercises 419 The Shergottite,Nakhlite, and ChassigniteMeteorites 505 Atmospheric Structure 508 IX The Airless Rocky Bodies: Io, Atmospheric Circulation 509 Phobos, Deimos, the Moon, and Mercury Atmospheric Composition 510 PhotochemicalStability and Introduction 424 Atmospheric Escape 513 Orbits and Physical Structure ofPhobos Explosive Blowoff 519 and Deimos 426 Origin and Evolution of theAtmosphere 519