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Roger Brown Physical Test Methods for Elastomers Physical Test Methods for Elastomers Roger Brown Physical Test Methods for Elastomers RogerBrown Shrewsbury,UK ISBN978-3-319-66726-3 ISBN978-3-319-66727-0 (eBook) DOI10.1007/978-3-319-66727-0 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2017950162 ©SpringerInternationalPublishingAG2018 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartof the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexempt fromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthis book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained hereinor for anyerrors oromissionsthat may havebeenmade. Thepublisher remainsneutralwith regardtojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. Printedonacid-freepaper ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbySpringerNature TheregisteredcompanyisSpringerInternationalPublishingAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Preface Determination of the physical properties of materials is essential for design, specification and quality control purposes. However, the particular nature of rub- bers and rubber-like materials demands that specific test procedures, rather than methods for materials in general, are used to measure almost all their properties. Onestrongindicationoftheimportanceofrubbertestingtoindustryandresearchis thelargenumberofnationalandinternationalstandardswhichhavebeenproduced tocoverthefullspectrumofproperties. AtextdevotedtothePhysicalTestingofRubbersbasedonexperienceatRapra firstappearedin1965withthepublicationoftheworkofthelateDr.JRScott,who was widely regarded as the ‘father of rubber testing.’ The first edition of my own book of the same title came in 1979 with the second, third, and fourth editions reflectingthecontinuingtechnicaldevelopmentsoverthenextfourdecades.More than50yearsafterthatfirsttext,anewvolumewasneededtogiveanaccountofthe present-daymethodsfortestingelastomers. There have been many changes in the methods used over that time and new procedureshavebeenintroduced.Specifically,therehavebeenvastimprovements to much of the instrumentation as more modern technologies are adopted by instrumentmanufacturersandtherequirementsofindustrybecomemoresophisti- cated. The International (ISO) and ASTM test method standards are subject to a continuousprocessofreviewandrevision,withmosthavingundergonechangesin thelastfewyears. This book collates the many standard methods, comments on their virtues and defects, and considers procedures needed for both quality control and the genera- tion of design data. The literature relating to the development and application of rubber test methods has also been reviewed. The content owes much to the experience gained over many decades in an internationally recognised test house with a history of developingtest proceduresand making avery significant contri- butiontonationalandinternationalstandardisation. v vi Preface Physical Test Methods for Elastomers is primarily intended as a reference for thosedirectlyconcernedwithtestingelastomers,whetheritbeforqualitycontrol, evaluation of products, production of design data or research, and for students of rubbertechnology.However,itisbelievedthatitwillalsobeofconsiderablevalue to those indirectly involved in testing such as design engineers and technical specifiers. Shrewsbury,UK RogerBrown Contents PartI BeforeYouTest 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.1 ScopeandContent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2 GeneralConsiderations. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. 9 2.1 Philosophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.2 TestPieceHistory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.3 TestConditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.4 Statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.5 Sampling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.6 LimitationsofResults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.7 QualitySystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.8 TestEquipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.9 ThermoplasticElastomers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.10 ProductTesting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3 Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3.1 Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3.1.1 TypesofStandard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3.1.2 TestMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.2 OrganisationsProducingStandards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.2.1 SourcesofStandards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.2.2 InternationalStandards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.2.3 NationalStandards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.2.4 CompanyStandards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.3 Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 vii viii Contents 4 ConditioningandTestAtmospheres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 4.2 Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 4.3 Conditioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 4.4 TestConditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 4.5 ApparatusforConditioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4.5.1 AirConditionedRooms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4.5.2 Enclosures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 4.5.3 Hygrometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 4.5.4 Thermometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.5.5 ApparatusforElevatedandSubnormal Temperatures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.6 MechanicalConditioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 PartII ProcessingandPreparationforTest 5 Processability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 5.2 StandardMethodsforParticularPolymers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 5.3 SamplePreparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 5.4 ViscoelasticFlowBehaviour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.4.2 CompressionPlastimeters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 5.4.3 PlasticityRetentionIndex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 5.4.4 RotationPlastimeters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 5.4.5 ExtrusionRheometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 5.4.6 MixingMachines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 5.4.7 OtherProcessabilityTests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 5.4.8 CorrelationBetweenPlastimeters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 5.5 ScorchandCureRate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 5.5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 5.5.2 TypesofCuremeter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 5.5.3 ExtendedUseofCuremeterTypeInstruments. . . . . . . 77 5.5.4 AlternativeMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 5.6 Tack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 5.7 OtherTests. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . 79 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 6 PreparationofTestPieces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 6.2 MixingandMoulding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 6.3 CuttingfromSheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 6.4 TestPiecesfromFinishedProducts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Contents ix 7 Mass,DensityandDimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 7.2 Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 7.3 Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 7.4 Dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 7.4.1 DimensionsNeeded. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 7.4.2 StandardMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 7.4.3 Non-standardMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 7.4.4 SurfaceRoughness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 7.4.5 Extensometry. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. 100 7.4.6 DimensionalStability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 7.4.7 Dispersion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 PartIII ShortTermMechanicalProperties 8 StressandStrainData. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 8.2 Stress/StrainRelationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 8.3 Poisson’sRatio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 8.4 DataforFiniteElementAnalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 9 Hardness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 9.1 WhatIsHardness?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 9.2 IntroductiontoRubberHardnessTests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 9.3 DeadLoadTests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 9.3.1 IRHDMethod,NormalScale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 9.3.2 HighandLowScales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 9.3.3 MicroTests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 9.3.4 ApparentHardness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 9.3.5 BritishandASTMstandards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 9.4 DurometerTests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 9.5 NanoandDynamicMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 9.6 AccuracyandComparisonofHardnessTests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 9.7 UseofHardnessTests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 134 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 10 Tension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 10.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 10.2 FormofTestPiece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 10.3 MeasurementofTestPieces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 10.4 Apparatus. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. 142 10.4.1 TensileMachine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 10.4.2 Grips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 10.4.3 ApplicationofForce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 x Contents 10.4.4 ForceMeasurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 10.4.5 ElongationMeasurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 10.5 CalculationandExpressionofResults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 10.6 RelaxedModulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 10.7 BiaxialExtension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 11 Compression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 11.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 11.2 TestMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 11.3 BulkCompression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 12 ShearandFlexure. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 161 12.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 12.2 SimpleShear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 12.3 PureShear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 12.4 Torsion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 12.5 Flexure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 13 Tear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 13.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 13.2 FormsofTestPiece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 13.3 PreparationofTestPieces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 13.4 MeasurementofTearingForce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 13.5 ExpressionofResults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 13.6 FractureMechanicsApproach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 13.7 CuttingResistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 PartIV TimeDependentProperties 14 DynamicStressandStrain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 14.1 PrinciplesofDynamicTests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 14.2 ReboundResilience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 14.2.1 Principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 14.2.2 PendulumMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 14.2.3 FallingWeightMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 14.3 FreeVibrationMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 14.3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 14.3.2 YerzleyOscillograph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 14.3.3 TorsionPendulum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 14.4 ForcedVibrationMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 14.4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 14.4.2 BriefReviewofForcedVibrationApparatus. . . . . . . . 196 14.4.3 StandardMethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

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