Physical Foundations of Materials Science

510 Pages·2004·16.587 MB·English

by  Professor Dr. Günter Gottstein (auth.)

Gunter Gottstein
Physical Foundations of Materials Science
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
Gunter Gottstein
Physical Foundations
of Materials Science
With 472 Figures
, Springer
Professor Dr. Gunter Gottstein
RWTHAachen
Institut rur Metallkunde und Metallphysik
Kopernikusstr. 14
52074 Aachen
Germany
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ISBN 978-3-642-07271-0 ISBN 978-3-662-09291-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-09291-0
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Acknowledgement
To begin with I would like to express my appreciation for the advice, recom
mendation, and encouragement that I received from many colleagues abroad
who urged me to translate my German textbook into English. Most of all, I
am indebted to Mrs. Irene Zeferer, who was in charge of typescript and lay
out of the text, for her dedicated personal engagement in the project. Mrs.
Barbara Eigelshoven assisted with quality enhancement of the figures and
in securing top quality micrograph reproduction. Dipl.-Ing Petar Mijatovic
lent a hand in circumnavigating unanticipated problems with the desk top
publishing system. Also, he regenerated all the tables in a more aesthetically
pleasing format. The invaluable advice of Profs. Tony Rollett, eMU, and Mar
tin Glicksman, RPI, on the correct use of language and grammar was highly
appreciated. Finally, I want to thank all those who assisted in proof reading
the manuscript, in particular my doctoral students.
Preface
This book is a translation of a German textbook on Materials Science. It orig
inates from a set of handouts at the RWTH Aachen university for students of
materials engineering and of metal physics and was developed over the years
to a compact manuscript. From the core of a physical metallurgy text it was
extended to a broader coverage of materials in the frame of established scien
tific concepts.
The text aims at providing the physical fundamentals to understand ma
terials behavior and at preparing the reader for more advanced litarature on
the subject. On the other hand the book is designed not to follow the common
scheme of traditional introductory Materials Science texts which primarily in
troduce into the phenomenology of materials on an elementary level. Rather
this book tries to bridge the scope from atomistic mechanisms to engineering
properties of materials not staying away from mathematics where necessary.
The manuscript does not pretend to give a comprehensive coverage of mate
rials science, and as a textbook it has to find a compromise between compre
hensive and in depth treatment of the subject. Such compromise is a matter
of personal preference and taste. This is particularly true for the chapter on
" physical properties" which is designed for materials engineering students who
usually are less familiar with the basics of solid state physics.
The text builds on the classical German text of Masing "Einfuhrung in
die Metallkunde" (introduction to physical metallurgy) which represents the
approach of the Gottingen school of physical metallurgy in the line of Tam
mann, Masing, Haasen, and Lucke. It is typical for this approach to develop
a deeper understanding of the subject and to reduce complex phenomena to
their essential physical mechanisms for refined analysis and prediction. Since
understanding is essentially based on visualization the text provides an abun
dance of figures to guide the reader through the seemingly confusing but
fascinating world of materials.
Contents
Preface ................................................... " IX
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1 Microstructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Atomic Structure of Solids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
2.1 Atomic Bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
2.2 Crystal Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20
2.2.1 Crystal Systems and Space Lattice .................. 20
2.2.2 Crystal Structures of Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
2.2.3 Crystal Structure of Ceramic Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30
2.2.4 Crystal Structure of Plymers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 32
2.3 Indexing Crystallographic Planes and Directions. . . . . . . . . . . .. 35
2.4 Representation of Orientations: Stereographic Projection ... " 41
2.5 Experimental Crystallographic Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45
2.5.1 Bragg's law .................. " ................... 45
2.5.2 X-ray Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46
2.5.3 Electron Microscopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
2.5.4 Crystallographic Textures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55
3 Crystal Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63
3.1 Overview............................................... 63
3.2 Point Defects ........................................... 63
3.2.1 Types of point defects ............................. 63
3.2.2 Thermodynamics of point defects .................... 65
3.2.3 Experimental evidence of point defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
3.3 Dislocations............................................ 71
3.3.1 Geometry of dislocations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
3.3.2 Evidence of dislocations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78
3.4 Grain Boundaries ...................................... " 82
XII Contents
3.4.1 Terminology and Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 82
3.4.2 Atomic Structure of Grain Boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84
3.4.2.1 Low angle grain boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84
3.4.2.2 High angle grain boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
3.5 Phase Boundaries ....................................... 98
3.5.1 Classification of Phase Boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98
3.5.2 Phenomenological Characterization of Phase Boundaries102
4 Alloys ..................................................... 107
4.1 Constitution of Alloys .................................... 107
4.2 Thermodynamics of Alloys ................................ 121
4.3 Solid Solutions .......................................... 125
4.4 Intermetallic Compounds ................................. 133
4.4.1 Overview ......................................... 133
4.4.2 Ordered Solid Solutions ............................ 134
4.4.3 Compound Phases ................................. 142
4.4.4 Phases with High Packing Density ................... 144
4.4.5 Electronic Phases (Hume-Rothery-phases) ............ 148
4.5 Multicomponent Systems ................................. 151
5 Diffusion ................................................... 155
5.1 Phenomenology and Basic Laws ........................... 155
5.2 The Diffusion Constant .................................. 162
5.3 Atomistics of Solid State Diffusion ......................... 165
5.4 Correlation Effects ....................................... 176
5.5 Chemical Diffusion ...................................... 179
5.6 Thermodynamic factor ................................... 183
5.7 Grain Boundary Diffusion ................................ 186
5.8 Diffusion in Nonmetals: Ionic Conductors ................... 190
6 Mechanical Properties ..................................... 197
6.1 Basic Elements of Elasticity .............................. 197
6.2 The Flow Curve ......................................... 202
6.3 Mechanisms of Plastic Deformation ........................ 210
6.3.1 Crystallographic Slip by Dislocation Motion .......... 210
6.3.2 Mechanical Twinning .............................. 220
6.4 The Critical Resolved Shear Stress ......................... 226
6.4.1 Schmid's Law ..................................... 226
6.4.2 Dislocation Model of the Critically Resolved Shear
Stress ............................................ 230
6.4.2.1 Elastic Properties of Dislocations ............ 230
6.4.2.2 Interaction of dislocations ................... 235
6.4.3 Thermally Activated Dislocation Motion ............. 237
6.5 Strain Hardening of fcc Single Crystals ..................... 241
6.5.1 Geometry of Deformation .......................... 241
Contents XIII
6.5.2 Dislocation Models of Strain Hardening .............. 245
6.5.3 Dissociation of Dislocations ......................... 252
6.6 Strength and Deformation of Polycrystals .................. 257
6.7 Strengthening Mechanisms ................................ 264
6.7.1 Solid Solution Hardening ........................... 264
6.7.2 Dispersion Hardening .............................. 271
6.7.3 Precipitation Hardening ............................ 274
6.8 Time Dependent Deformation ............................. 278
6.8.1 Strain Rate Sensitivity of Flow Stress: Superplasticity .. 278
6.8.2 Creep ............................................ 281
6.8.3 Anelasticity and Viscoelasticity ..................... 288
7 Recovery, Recrystallization, Grain Growth ................ 303
7.1 Phenomena and Terminology ............................. 303
7.2 Energetics of Recrystallization ............................ 308
7.3 Deformation Microstructure .............................. 312
7.4 Recovery ............................................... 316
7.5 Nucleation .............................................. 321
7.6 Grain Boundary Migration ............................... 327
7.7 Kinetics of Primary Recrystallization ...................... 330
7.8 The Recrystallization Diagram ............................ 335
7.9 Recrystallization in Homogeneous Alloys ................... 337
7.10 Recrystallization in Multiphase Alloys ...................... 338
7.11 Normal Grain Growth .................................... 341
7.12 Discontinuous Grain Growth (Secondary Recrystallization) ... 347
7.13 Dynamic Recrystallization ................................ 348
7.14 Recrystallization Textures ................................ 350
7.15 Recrystallization in Nonmetallic Materials .................. 356
8 Solidification .............................................. 357
8.1 The liquid state ......................................... 357
8.2 Nucleation of the Solid State .............................. 360
8.3 Crystal Growth ......................................... 367
8.3.1 Shape of a crystal ................................. 367
8.3.2 Atomistics of Crystal Growth ....................... 369
8.3.3 Crystal growth in the melt ......................... 371
8.3.3.1 Solidification of pure metals ................. 371
8.3.3.2 Solidification of alloys ...................... 373
8.3.3.3 Solidification of eutectic alloys ............... 376
8.4 Microstructure of a Cast Ingot ............................ 378
8.5 Solidification Defects ..................................... 380
8.6 Rapid Solidification of Metals and Alloys ................... 382
8.7 Solidification of Glasses and Polymers ...................... 385
8.7.1 Ionic crystals and glasses ........................... 385
8.7.2 Polymers ......................................... 386