Table Of Content

Editedby KazumiWadaand LionelC.Kimerling PhotonicsandElectronicswith Germanium RelatedTitles Sailor,M.J. Reed,G.T.(ed.) PorousSiliconinPractice SiliconPhotonics-TheStateof Preparation,Characterizationand theArt Applications 2008 2012 PrintISBN:978-0-470-02579-6;alsoavailable PrintISBN:978-3-527-31378-5;alsoavailable inelectronicformats inelectronicformats Klauk,H.(ed.) OrganicElectronicsII MoreMaterialsandApplications 2012 PrintISBN:978-3-527-32647-1;alsoavailable inelectronicformats EditedbyKazumiWadaandLionelC.Kimerling Photonics and Electronics with Germanium TheEditors AllbookspublishedbyWiley-VCHare carefullyproduced.Nevertheless,authors, Prof.Dr.KazumiWada editors,andpublisherdonotwarrantthe UniversityofTokyo informationcontainedinthesebooks, DepartmentofMaterialsEngineering includingthisbook,tobefreeoferrors. 7-3-1Hongo Readersareadvisedtokeepinmindthat 113-8656Bunkyo,Tokyo statements,data,illustrations,procedural Japan detailsorotheritemsmayinadvertently beinaccurate. Prof.Dr.LionelC.Kimerling MIT LibraryofCongressCardNo.:appliedfor DepartmentofMaterialsSciences& Engineering BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-Publication MassachusettsAve.77 Data USA Acataloguerecordforthisbookis availablefromtheBritishLibrary. Bibliographicinformationpublishedbythe DeutscheNationalbibliothek TheDeutscheNationalbibliothek liststhispublicationintheDeutsche Nationalbibliografie;detailed bibliographicdataareavailableonthe Internetat<http://dnb.d-nb.de>. ©2015Wiley-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co. KGaA,Boschstr.12,69469Weinheim, Germany Allrightsreserved(includingthoseof translationintootherlanguages).Nopart ofthisbookmaybereproducedinany form – byphotoprinting,microfilm, oranyothermeans – nortransmitted ortranslatedintoamachinelanguage withoutwrittenpermissionfromthe publishers.Registerednames,trademarks, etc.usedinthisbook,evenwhennot specificallymarkedassuch,arenottobe consideredunprotectedbylaw. PrintISBN:978-3-527-32821-5 ePDFISBN:978-3-527-65023-1 ePubISBN:978-3-527-65022-4 MobiISBN:978-3-527-65021-7 oBookISBN:978-3-527-65020-0 Typesetting LaserwordsPrivateLtd., Chennai,India PrintingandBinding MarkonoPrint MediaPteLtd,Singapore Printedonacid-freepaper V Contents Preface XI ListofContributors XIII 1 DefectsinGermanium 1 JustinR.Weber,AndersonJanotti,andChrisG.VandeWalle 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 MethodsforStudyingDefectsandImpurities 2 1.2.1 ExperimentalTechniques 2 1.2.2 First-PrinciplesCalculations 3 1.3 Impurities 5 1.3.1 ShallowDopants 5 1.3.2 Hydrogen 8 1.4 IntrinsicDefects 8 1.4.1 Vacancies 8 1.4.1.1 ElectronicStructure 8 1.4.1.2 FormationEnergy 9 1.4.1.3 DefectLevels 10 1.4.1.4 ComparisonwithSilicon 13 1.4.1.5 Diffusion 13 1.4.2 Self-Interstitials 14 1.4.3 DanglingBonds 16 1.4.3.1 ElectronicLevels 16 1.4.4 ImpactonDevices 18 1.5 Summary 19 References 19 2 HydrogeninGe 25 JörgWeber 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 PropertiesofHydrogeninGe 26 2.2.1 IncorporationofHydrogen 26 2.2.2 IsolatedHydrogen 27 2.2.3 HydrogenDimers 30 VI Contents 2.2.3.1 InterstitialH 30 2 2.2.3.2 TheH ∗Defect 31 2 2.2.3.3 H MoleculesinHydrogen-InducedPlatelets 32 2 2.2.3.4 ComplexesofHydrogenwithOtherDefects 34 2.3 HydrogenPassivationofShallowDonorsandAcceptorsinGe 36 2.3.1 DonorPassivation 37 2.3.2 Hydrogeninp-typeGe 40 2.3.3 SchottkyContactsonp-typeGe 43 2.4 Summary 45 Acknowledgments 45 References 45 3 EpitaxyofGeLayersonBlanketandPatternedSi(001)for NanoelectronicsandOptoelectronics 49 Jean-MichelHartmann 3.1 GeneralIntroduction 49 3.2 EpitaxialGrowthofGeThickLayersonSi(001) 50 3.2.1 GrowthProtocolandKinetics 50 3.2.2 SurfaceMorphology 51 3.2.3 StrainState 52 3.2.4 DefectsDensityandDistributionintheGeLayers 54 3.3 GeSurfacePassivationwithSi 55 3.3.1 PassivationProtocol 55 3.3.2 SurfaceandFilmMorphology 57 3.4 SEGofGeinCavitiesattheEndofOpticalWaveguides 59 3.5 Fabrication,Structural,andElectricalPropertiesofCompressively StrainedGe-on-InsulatorSubstrates 61 3.5.1 Thec-GeonSi0.15Ge0.85ProcessFlow 62 3.5.2 StructuralPropertiesofthec-GeonSi0.15Ge0.85StacksasaFunction oftheGeLayerThickness 64 3.5.2.1 SurfaceMorphology 64 3.5.2.2 MacroscopicStrainState 65 3.5.2.3 DefectDensity 66 3.5.3 Propertiesofthec-GeOISubstrates 68 3.5.3.1 StructuralProperties 68 3.5.3.2 ElectricalProperties 69 3.5.3.3 Benchmark 71 3.6 ConclusionandPerspectives 72 References 73 4 HeavyDopinginSi Ge EpitaxialGrowthbyChemicalVapor 1−x x Deposition 77 JunichiMurota 4.1 Introduction 77 4.2 InsituDopingofB,P,andCinSi Ge EpitaxialGrowth 78 1−x x Contents VII 4.2.1 InsituDopingCharacteristicsinSi Ge EpitaxialGrowth 78 1−x x 4.2.2 RelationshipbetweenCarrierandImpurity(BorP)Concentrations inSi Ge C EpitaxialFilm 82 1−x−y x y 4.3 Atomic-LayerDopinginSi Ge EpitaxialGrowth 84 1−x x 4.3.1 BoronAtomic-LayerDopinginSi Ge EpitaxialGrowth 85 1−x x 4.3.1.1 SurfaceReactionofB H onSi Ge (100) 85 2 6 1−x x 4.3.1.2 Si Ge EpitaxialGrowthoverBAtomicLayerAlreadyFormed 1−x x onthe(100)Surface 87 4.3.2 PhosphorusAtomic-LayerDopinginSi Ge EpitaxialGrowth 88 1−x x 4.3.2.1 SurfaceReactionofPH onSi Ge (100) 88 3 1−x x 4.3.2.2 Si Ge EpitaxialGrowthoverPAtomicLayerAlready-Formed 1−x x onthe(100)Surface 89 4.3.3 CarbonAtomic-LayerDopinginSi/Si Ge /Si(100)Structure 94 1−x x 4.3.3.1 SurfaceReactionofSiH CH onSi Ge (100) 94 3 3 1−x x 4.3.3.2 Si Ge EpitaxialGrowthoverCAtomicLayerAlreadyFormed 1−x x onthe(100)Surface 94 4.4 ConclusionandFutureTrends 96 Acknowledgments 97 References 97 5 FEOLIntegrationofSilicon-andGermanium-BasedPhotonicsin Bulk-Silicon,High-PerformanceSiGe:C-BiCMOSProcesses 101 LarsZimmermann,DieterKnoll,andBerndTillack 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 LocalSOITechnology 103 5.3 PassiveSiliconWaveguideTechnology 105 5.4 ModulatorTechnology 108 5.5 PhotonicsIntegrationinBiCMOSFlow 111 5.6 GermaniumPhotoDetector–ProcessIntegrationChallenges 114 5.7 ExampleCircuit–10Gbits−1ModulatorwithDriver 118 5.8 Outlook 120 Acknowledgments 120 References 121 6 GeCondensationandItsDeviceApplication 123 ShinichiTakagi 6.1 PrincipleofGeCondensationandFabricationProcess 123 6.1.1 BasicConceptofGeCondensationProcess 123 6.1.2 CriticalProcessParameters 125 6.2 GOIFilmCharacterization 127 6.2.1 ThicknessControl 127 6.2.2 ResidualImpurity 129 6.2.3 StrainBehavior 129 6.2.4 DefectsandDislocations 131 6.2.5 ElectricalProperties 132 VIII Contents 6.3 DeviceApplication 132 6.3.1 PlanarGOIMOSFET 133 6.3.2 MOSFETsUsingLocalGeCondensation 135 6.3.2.1 PlanarMOSFETs 135 6.3.2.2 Multi-gateandNanowireMOSFETs 138 6.3.3 Stressor 139 6.3.4 PhotonicDevices 139 6.4 Summary 140 References 140 7 WaveguideDesign,Fabrication,andActiveDeviceIntegration 147 KojiYamada 7.1 Introduction 147 7.2 DesignofSiliconPhotonicWireWaveguidingSystem 148 7.2.1 GuidedModesofSiPhotonicWireWaveguide 148 7.2.2 ExternalCouplingofSiliconPhotonicWireWaveguide 152 7.2.3 CouplingtoGePhotonicDevices 153 7.3 Fabrication 155 7.3.1 SiWaveguideCore 155 7.3.2 DynamicandActiveLayers 155 7.3.3 SSCsandOvercladding 156 7.4 PropagationPerformanceofWaveguides 158 7.5 IntegrationofSi/SilicaandGePhotonicDevices 160 7.5.1 IntegrationofSi-BasedModulationDeviceandGe-Based Photodetectors 160 7.5.2 IntegrationofSi/Silica-BasedWavelengthFilterandGe-Based Photodetectors 160 7.6 Summary 161 References 162 8 Detectors 165 SubalSahniandGianlorenzoMasini 8.1 Introduction 165 8.2 HistoricalBackground 165 8.3 Fiber-OpticsRevolution 167 8.4 AvalancheDevices 167 8.5 Si-Photonics 168 8.6 High-PerformanceGeDetectors 169 8.7 ProcessOptionsandChallenges 170 8.7.1 PhysicalVaporDeposition(PVD) 170 8.7.2 ChemicalVaporDeposition 172 8.7.3 RapidMeltGrowth 174 8.7.4 OtherTechniques 175 8.8 DeviceArchitectures 177 8.9 GeonSiDetectorsinHighlyIntegratedSystems 180