Table Of Content

Petroleum Production Systems Michael J. Economides Professor of Petroleum Engineering, Mining· University Leoben A. Daniel Hiii Professor of Petroleum Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin Christine Ehlig-Economldes Technical Advisor, Schlumberger Oilfield Services Coordination For book and bookstore information http://www.prenhall.com gopher to gopher.prenhall.com I t Prentice Hall PTR Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 Library of Congress Cataloging-in- Publication Data Economides, Michael J. Petroleum production systems I Michael J. Economides, A. Daniel Hill, Christine Ehlig-Economides p. cm. ISBN 0-13-658683-X 1. Oil fields-Production methods.. I.Hill, A. D. (A. Daniel) II. Ehlig-Economides, Christine. III. Title. TN870.E29 1993 622' .338-dc20-dc20 93-36626 CIP Buyer: Alexis Heydt Acquisition Editor: Betty Sun Production Editor: Camille Trentacoste Editorial Assistant: Kim Intindola Cover Design: Wanda Lube/ska © 1994 by Prentice-Hall PTR Prentice Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster Company I A Viacom Company Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America 10987654 ISBN 0-13-658683-X Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de Janeiro Contents Preface ix 1 The Role of Petroleum Production Engineering 1-1 Introduction 1-2 Components of the Petroleum Production System 2 l-3 Well Productivity and Production Engineering 10 1-4 Units and Conversions 13 2 Production from Undersaturated Oil Reservoirs 2-1 Introduction 17 2-2 Transient Flow of Undersaturated Oil 17 2-3 Steady-State Well Performance 19 2-4 Pseudosteady-State Flow 22 2-5 Wells Draining Irregular Patterns 25 2-6 Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) 28 2-7 Horizontal Well Production 31 2-8 Impact of Skin Effect on Horizontal Well Performance 36 2-9 Effects of Water Production. Relative Permeability 36 3 Production from Two-Phase Reservoirs 3-1 Introduction 41 3-2 Properties of Saturated Oils 42 3-3 Two-Phase Flow in a Reservoir 50 3-4 Oil Inflow Performance for a Two-Phase Reservoir 52 3-5 Generalized Vogel Inflow Performance 53 3-6 Fetkovich's Approximation 54 iii iv Contents 4 Production from Natural Gas Reservoirs 4-1 Introduction 57 4-2 Correlations and Useful Calculations for Natural Gases 59 4-3 Approximations of Gas Well Deliverability 68 4-4 Gas Well Deliverability for Non-Darcy Flow 71 4-5 Transient Flow of a Gas Well 73 4-6 Horizontal Well IPR in a Gas Reservoir 79 5 The Near-Wellbore Condition and Damage Characterization; Skin Effects 5-1 Introduction 83 5-2 Hawkins Formula 84 5-3 The Skin Components 86 5-4 Skin from Partial Completion and Slant 88 5-5 Well Perforation and Skin Effect 94 5-6 Horizontal Well Damage Skin Effect 100 5-7 Formation Damage Mechanisms 104 5-8 Sources of Formation Damage During Well Operations 110 6 Gravel Pack Completions 6-1 Introduction 119 6-2 Gravel Pack Placement 119 6-3 Gravel and Screen Design 122 6-4 Productivity of Gravel Packed Wells 126 6-5 Gravel Pack Evaluation 130 7 Wellbore Flow Performance 7-1 Introduction 133 7-2 Single-Phase Flow of an Incompressible, Newtonian Fluid 133 7-3 Single-Phase Flow of a Compressible, Newtonian Fluid 144 7-4 Multiphase Flow in Wells 148 8 Well Deliverability 8-1 Introduction 173 8-2 Combination of Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) and 174 Vertical Lift Performance (VLP) 8-3 IPR and VLP of Two-Phase Reservoirs 179 8-4 IPR and VLP in Gas Reservoirs 181 9 Forecast of Well Production 9-1 Introduction 187 9-2 Transient Production Rate Forecast 187 9-3 Material Balance for an Undersaturated Reservoir and Production 188 Forecast under Pseudo-Steady-State Conditions Contents v 9-4 The General Material Balance for Oil Reservoirs 192 9-5 Production Forecast from a Two-Phase Reservoir: 197 Solution Gas Drive 9-6 Gas Material Balance and Forecast of Gas Well Performance 203 10 Wellhead and Surface Gathering Systems 10-1 Introduction 207 10-2 Flow in Horizontal Pipes 207 10-3 Flow Through Chokes 223 10-4 Surface Gathering Systems 232 11 Well Test Design and Data Acquisition 11-1 Introduction 239 11-2 Well Test Objectives 242 11-3 Test Types 264 11-4 Pressure Gauge Characteristics 284 11-5 Test Design 291 12 Well Diagnosis With Production Logging 12-1 Introduction 309 12-2 Abnormally Low Productivity 310 12-3 Excessive Gas or Water Production 312 12-4 Use of Production Logging for Well Treatment Evaluation 318 12-5 Injection Well Diagnosis 321 13 Matrix Acidizing: Acid/Rock Interactions 13-1 Introduction 327 13-2 Acid-Mineral Reaction Stoichiometry 330 13-3 Acid-Mineral Reaction Kinetics 334 13-4 Acid Transport to the Mineral Surface 340 13-5 Precipitation of Acid Reaction Products 341 14 Sandstone Acidizing Design 14-1 Introduction 347 14-2 Acid Selection 348 14-3 Acid Volume and Injection Rate 350 14-4 Fluid Placement and Diversion 370 14-5 Preftush and Postflush Design 382 14-6 Acid Additives 384 14-7 Acidizing Treatment Operations 385 14-8 Acidizing of Horizontal Wells 386 15 Carbonate Acidizing Design 15-1 Introduction 391 15-2 Wormhole Formation and Growth 392 vi Contents 15-3 Matrix Acidizing Design for Carbonates 402 15-4 Acid Fracturing 408 16 Hydraulic Fracturing for Well Stimulation 16-1 Introduction 421 16-2 In-Situ Stresses 423 16-3 Fracture Direction 427 16-4 Length, Conductivity and Equivalent Skin Effect 428 16-5 Modeling of Fracture Geometry 432 16-6 Height Migration 445 16-7 Fluid Volume Requirements 448 16-8 Proppant Schedule 451 16-9 Propped Fracture Width 452 17 Design of Hydraulic Fracture Treatments 17-1 Introduction 457 17-2 Design Considerations for Fracturing Fluids 458 17-3 Proppant Selection for Fracture Design 471 17-4 Fracture Design and Fracture Propagation Issues 477 17-5 Net Present Value (NPV) for Hydraulic Fracture Design 481 17-6 Parametric Studies 485 17-7 Fracture Design with Uncertainty: The Monte Carlo Technique 488 18 Evaluating the Performance of Fractured and Long-flowing Wells 18-1 Introduction 495 18-2 Pretreatment Testing of Hydraulic Fracture Candidate Wells 496 18-3 Transient Response of a Hydraulically Fractured Well 496 18-4 Choked Fractures 503 18-5 Fracture Face Damage 504 18-6 Fractured Vertical versus Horizontal Wells 506 18-7 Performance of Fractured Horizontal Wells 509 18-8 Interpretation of Surface Rate and Pressure Data 512 18-9 Decline Curve Analysis 516 19 Gas Lift 19-1 Introduction 523 19-2 Natural versus Artificial Flowing Gradient 524 19-3 Pressure of Injected Gas 526 19-4 Power Requirements for Gas Compressors 529 19-5 Impact of Increase of Gas Injection Rate; Sustaining of Oil Rate 531 with Reservoir Pressure Decline 19-6 Maximum Production Rate with Gas Lift 532 Contents vii 19-7 Gas-Lift Performance Curve 535 19-8 Gas-Lift Requirements versus Time 544 20 Pump-Assisted Lift 20-1 Introduction 551 20-2 Positive Displacement Pumps 553 20-3 Dynamic Displacement Pumps 563 20-4 Selection of Artificial Lift Method; 569 Gas-Lift versus Pump-Assisted Lift 21 Systems Analysis 21-1 Introduction 573 21-2 Pressure Drop Components of the System 574 21-3 System Design and Diagnosis 575 22 Environmental Concerns in Petroleum Production Engineering 22-1 Introduction 579 22-2 Wastes Generated in Production Operations 579 22-3 Operating Issues-Handling Oilfield Wastes 583 22-4 Arctic Environments 588 Appendix A: Well in an Undersaturated Oil Formation 591 Appendix B: Well in a Two-Phase Reservoir 593 Appendix C: Well in a Natural Gas Reservoir 597 Appendix D: Nomenclature 599