Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks

475 Pages·2023·18.52 MB·English

by  Kurt Bucher

Kurt Bucher
Petrogenesis
of Metamorphic
Rocks
Ninth Edition
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Kurt Bucher
Petrogenesis
of Metamorphic Rocks
Ninth Edition
123
KurtBucher
Institut für Geowissenschaften
UniversitätFreiburg
Freiburg, Germany
ISSN 2510-1307 ISSN 2510-1315 (electronic)
SpringerTextbooks inEarth Sciences, GeographyandEnvironment
ISBN978-3-031-12593-5 ISBN978-3-031-12595-9 (eBook)
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Preface
This new edition of “Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks” has several completely
revisedchaptersandallchaptershaveupdatedreferencesandadditionalorredrawn
figures. All chapters of the book have been rewritten. The references made to
importantwebsitesrelatingtometamorphicpetrologytutorials,software,mailbase,
etc.havebeenupdated.However,itshouldbenotedthatsomeofthelinkstothese
sites might fail to work in the future. A large number of new figures showing
assemblage stability diagrams have been computed using the Theriak/Domino
software by Ch. de Capitani of the University of Basel.
Weencourageyoutoregularlyread(oratleastglancethrough)currentissuesof
scientific journals in your library either online or paper copies. In the field of
metamorphic petrology, the Journal of Metamorphic Geology is essential reading
and some of the other particularly relevant journals include Journal of Petrology,
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, American Mineralogist, European
JournalofMineralogy,Lithos,ChemicalGeologyandEarthandPlanetaryScience
Letters.
Freiburg, Germany Kurt Bucher
June 2022
v
Acknowledgments
Revisionofthisbookhasbenefitedfrom help with softwareprovidedbyChristian
de Capitani (Basel). Various discussions on the “Geometamorphism Mailbase”
were useful for the improvement of the book.
Comments and contributions provided by Peter Tropper (Fig. 10.10), Rüdiger
Kilian (Fig. 9.25), Zheng Lü (Fig. 4.12), Chun-Min Wu, Leander Franz, Suhua
Cheng, Enrique Merino are gratefully acknowledged. All other photographs were
taken by the author. Rodney Grapes, co-author of the previous edition, became a
professionalartistandhispaintingscanbeadoredinthegalleriesofAuckland,New
Zealand. Some of his carefully drawn geological figures are still present in this
edition of the book.
vii
Contents
Part I General Aspects of Metamorphism
1 Introduction to Metamorphic Rocks, Rock Metamorphism,
and Metamorphic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Causes and Conditions of Metamorphism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.1 Low-Temperature Limit of Metamorphism. . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2 High-Temperature Limit of Metamorphism . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.3 Low-Pressure Limit of Metamorphism. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.4 High-Pressure Limit of Metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 Types of Metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.1 Orogenic Metamorphism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.2 Ocean-Floor Metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.3 Other Types of Regional Metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.4 Contact Metamorphism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.5 Cataclastic Metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.6 Hydrothermal Metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.7 Other Types of Small-Scale Metamorphism . . . . . . . . . 22
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2 Metamorphic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 Primary Material of Metamorphic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.1 Chemical Composition of Protoliths of Metamorphic
Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1.2 Chemical Composition Classes of Metamorphic
Rocks and Their Protoliths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 The Structure of Metamorphic Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 Classification and Names of Metamorphic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.1 Rock Names Referring to the Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.2 Names for High-Strain Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.3 Special Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.4 Modal Composition of Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3.5 Names Related to the Origin of the Protolith . . . . . . . . 44
2.4 Mineral Assemblages and Mineral Parageneses. . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
ix
x Contents
2.5 Graphical Representation of Metamorphic Mineral
Assemblages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.1 Mole Numbers, Mole Fractions and the Mole
Fraction Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.2 The Mole Fraction Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.5.3 Projections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5.3.1 Simple Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5.3.2 Projection of Solid-Solution Minerals. . . . . . 52
2.5.3.3 Complex Projections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.5.3.4 AFM Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5.3.5 ACF Projection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5.3.6 Other Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3 Metamorphic Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.1 Principles of Metamorphic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2 Pressure and Temperature Changes in Crust and Mantle . . . . . . 75
3.2.1 General Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2.2 Heat Flow and Geotherms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.2.2.1 Transient Geotherms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2.3 Temperature Changes and Metamorphic Reactions. . . . 80
3.2.4 Pressure Changes in Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3 Gases and Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.4 Time Scale of Metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.5 Pressure–Temperature-Time Paths and Reaction History . . . . . . 88
3.6 Chemical Reactions in Metamorphic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.6.1 Reactions Among Solid-Phase Components . . . . . . . . . 92
3.6.1.1 Phase Transitions, Polymorphic
Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.6.1.2 Net-Transfer Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.6.1.3 Exchange Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.6.1.4 Exsolution Reactions/Solvus Reactions. . . . . 93
3.6.2 Reactions Involving Volatiles as Reacting Species . . . . 94
3.6.2.1 Dehydration Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.6.2.2 Decarbonation Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.6.2.3 Mixed Volatile Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.6.2.4 Oxidation/Reduction Reactions . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.6.2.5 Reactions Involving Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.6.2.6 Reactions Involving Halogens . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.6.2.7 Complex Mixed Volatile Reactions and
Fluids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.6.2.8 Reactions Involving Minerals and
Dissolved Components in Aqueous
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Contents xi
3.7 Reaction Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.8 Phase Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.8.1 Phase Diagrams, General Comments and Software. . . . 112
3.8.2 The Phase Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.8.2.1 Phase Rule in Reactive Systems. . . . . . . . . . 115
3.8.3 Construction of Phase Diagrams
for Multicomponent Systems After the Method
of Schreinemakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.8.4 Use of Phase Diagrams, an Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.9 Reaction Kinetics and Chemical Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.9.1 General Comments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.9.2 Propagation of Reaction Fronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.9.3 Diffusion in Garnet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4 Metamorphic Grade, Conditions of Metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.2 Index Minerals and Mineral Zones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.3 Metamorphic Facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.3.1 Origin of the Facies Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.3.2 Metamorphic Facies Scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.3.2.1 Sub-Blueschist-Greenschist Facies . . . . . . . . 143
4.3.2.2 Greenschist Facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.3.2.3 Amphibolite Facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.3.2.4 Granulite Facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.3.2.5 Blueschist Facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.3.2.6 Eclogite Facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.3.3 Pressure–Temperature Conditions of Metamorphic
Facies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.4 Isograds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.4.1 The Isograd Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.4.2 Zone Boundaries, Isograds and Reaction-Isograds . . . . 150
4.4.3 Assessing Isograds, Isobars and Isotherms . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.5 Bathozones and Bathograds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.6 Petrogenetic Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.6.1 Polymorphic Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.6.1.1 Andalusite–Kyanite–Sillimanite . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.6.1.2 Calcite–Aragonite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.6.1.3 Quartz–Coesite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.7 Geothermobarometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.7.1 Concept and General Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.7.2 Exchange Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167