Page 2 Air Pollution and Health in Rapidly Developing Countries Page 3 Air Pollution and Health ...

255 Pages·2009·1.6 MB·English

Air Pollution and Health in
Rapidly Developing Countries
Air Pollution and Health in
Rapidly Developing Countries
EDITED BY
Gordon McGranahan
and Frank Murray
Earthscan Publications Ltd
London • Sterling,VA
First published in the UK and USA in 2003
by Earthscan Publications Ltd
Copyright © Stockholm Environment Institute,2003
All rights reserved
ISBN: 1 85383 985 X (paperback)
1 85383 966 3 (hardback)
Typesetting by MapSet Ltd,Gateshead,UK
Printed and bound in the UK by Creative Print and Design (Wales),Ebbw Vale
Cover design by Declan Buckley
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Air pollution and health in rapidly developing countries/[edited by] Gordon
McGranahan,Frank Murray.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-85383-966-3 (hbk.) – ISBN 1-85383-985-X (pbk.).
1.Air–Pollution–Health aspects–Developing countries.I.McGranahan,Gordon.
II.Murray,Frank,1950-
RA576.7.D44A37 2003
363.739'2'091724—dc21
2003003974
Earthscan is an editorially independent subsidiary of Kogan Page Ltd and publishes in
association with WWF-UK and the International Institute for Environment and
Development
This book is printed on elemental chlorine-free paper
Contents
List of Figures viii
List of Tables x
List of Contributors xii
Preface xxi
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xxiii
Acknowledgements xxvii
Introduction:Air Pollution and Health in Developing Countries –
The Context 1
Frank Murray and Gordon McGranahan
Objectives 1
Air Pollution in its Historical Context 2
Types and Sources of Air Pollution 5
Policies and Development of Standards 9
Summary of the Contents 15
1 Health-damaging Air Pollution:A Matter of Scale 21
Kirk R Smith and Sameer Akbar
Introduction 21
Risk Transition 22
Environmental Pathway Analysis 23
Exposure Assessment 25
Major Cross-scale Effects 28
Concluding Remarks 33
2 Air Pollution and Health – Studies in the Americas and Europe 35
Morton Lippmann
Introduction 35
Health Effects of Ozone (O ) 37
3
Health Effects of Particulate Matter (PM) 39
Health Effects of Diesel Engine Exhaust 44
Discussion and Conclusions 46
3 Air Pollution and Health in Developing Countries:A Review of
Epidemiological Evidence 49
Isabelle Romieu and Mauricio Hernandez-Avila
Introduction 50
Global Concentration Patterns of Outdoor Air Pollution 51
vi AIRPOLLUTIONANDHEALTHINRAPIDLYDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES
Health Effects of Particulate Matter and Sulphur Dioxide (SO ) 52
2
Health Effects of Ozone 56
Health Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide 58
Health Effects of Carbon Monoxide 58
Health Effects of Lead 59
Conclusions 62
4 Local Ambient Air Quality Management 68
Dietrich Schwela
Introduction 69
Use of WHO Guidelines for Air Quality in Local Air Quality
Management 77
Enforcement of Air Quality Standards:Clean Air Implementation
Plans 81
Urban Air Quality Management in Europe 82
5 Rapid Assessment of Air Pollution and Health:Making
Optimal Use of Data for Policy- and Decision-making 89
Yasmin von Schirnding
Introduction 90
Rapid Epidemiological Assessment 91
Individual Level Assessment Methods 94
Group Level Assessment Methods 96
Risk Assessment 99
Collection of Individual and Aggregate Level Data 101
Conclusions 105
6 A Systematic Approach to Air Quality Management:Examples
from the URBAIRCities 108
Steinar Larssen, Huib Jansen, Xander A Olsthoorn, Jitendra J Shah,
Knut Aarhus and Fan Changzhong
Urban Air Quality Management and the URBAIR Project 108
Physical Assessment 111
Cost–benefit Analysis of Selected Measures 114
Action Plans 116
Policy Instruments and Plans for Air Quality Improvement in
URBAIR Cities 117
Example:The Guangzhou Action Plan for Improved Air Quality 121
Conclusions 126
7 Indoor Air Pollution 129
Sumeet Saksena and Kirk R Smith
Introduction 129
Concentrations and Exposures 131
Health Effects 134
Health Impacts 137
Knowledge Gaps and Necessary Research 138
CONTENTS vii
Interventions 139
Conclusions 142
8 Vehicle Emissions and Health in Developing Countries 146
Michael P Walsh
Background and Introduction 147
Vehicle Population Trends and Characteristics 148
Adverse Health Effects Resulting from Vehicle Emissions 151
Strategies to Reduce Vehicle Emissions 159
Conclusions 172
9 Air Quality in Hong Kong and the Impact of Pollution on
Health 1988–1997 176
Anthony Johnson Hedley, Chit-Ming Wong, Tai-Hing Lam,
Sarah Morag McGhee and Stefan Ma
Background 176
Methods 179
Findings 180
Discussion 184
Conclusions 186
10 Air Pollution and its Impacts on Health in Santiago,Chile 189
Bart D Ostro
Introduction 190
Epidemiological Overview 190
Studies in Santiago and their Comparability with Other Studies 191
Estimating the Quantitative Health Impacts 195
Quantitative Results 200
Control Strategies 202
11 Air Quality and Health in Greater Johannesburg 206
Angela Mathee and Yasmin von Schirnding
Introduction 206
Urbanization 208
Industrialization 212
Transport and Traffic 213
Programmes and Policies 216
Index 220
List of Figures
1.1 Risk transition 23
1.2 Environmental pathway 24
1.3 Urban PM concentrations in Indian cities 26
10
1.4 Neighbourhood pollution in an Indian village in central Gujarat
during the winter 29
1.5 Urban neighbourhood pollution measured in Pune,India 30
1.6 Greenhouse gas and PM emissions from various household fuels
10
illustrating reductions in each that could be attained by fuel switching 32
2.1 Pyramid summarizing the adverse effects of ambient O in New York
3
City that can be averted by reduction of mid-1990s levels to those
meeting the 1997 NAAQS revision 40
2.2 Representative example of a mass distribution of ambient PM as a
function of aerodynamic particle diameter 41
3.1 Annual mean in last available year (bars) and annual change of
respirable particulate matter (PM ) concentrations (*) in residential
10
areas of cities in developing countries 52
4.1 Percentage increase in daily mortality assigned to PM ,PM and
10 2.5
sulphates 75
4.2 Percentage change in hospital admissions assigned to PM ,PM
10 2.5
and sulphates 75
4.3 Change in health endpoints in relation to PM concentrations 76
10
6.1 The system for developing an Air Quality Management Strategy
(AQMS) based upon assessment of effects and costs 110
6.2 Emission contributions to PM from various combustion source
categories,plus road dust resuspension (RESUSP),in four URBAIR
cities 113
6.3 Visualization of ranking of measures to reduce population
exposure and thus health damage 120
6.4 Cost curve,SO control options 124
2
6.5 Cost curve,NO control options 126
x
7.1 The generic household energy ladder 131
8.1 Global trends in motor vehicle (cars,trucks,buses) production 148
8.2 Global trends in motor vehicles 149
8.3 Global distribution of vehicles and people,1996 149
8.4 New vehicle sales forecast (excluding motorcycles) 150
8.5 Motorcycle registrations around the world 150
8.6 Elements of a comprehensive vehicle pollution control strategy 160
LISTOFFIGURES ix
9.1 Hong Kong’s average pollutant concentrations recorded at air quality
monitoring stations during 1988 177
9.2 Changes in SO following the 1990 fuel regulations 178
2
9.3 Odds ratios and excess risks (black) for nine respiratory symptoms
in primary school children associated with exposure to ambient air
pollution before (a) and after (b) the introduction of restrictions on
the sulphur content of fuel. 182
11.1 Smoke from winter fires in the township of Alexandra,
Johannesburg 208
11.2 Airborne particulate concentrations in Soweto,1992–1999 210
11.3 Mean daily PM levels in Johannesburg,2000 214
10
11.4 Monthly air lead levels in Johannesburg,1995–1997 215
List of Tables
I.1 Some major air pollution episodes and associated deaths 3
I.2 Principal pollutants and sources of outdoor and indoor air pollution 10
2.1 Population-based decrements in respiratory function associated with
exposure to ozone in ambient air 38
2.2 1997 revisions:US National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) 39
2.3 Comparisons of ambient fine and coarse mode particles 42
3.1 Health outcomes associated with changes in daily mean ambient
levels of particulate (PM concentrations in µg/m3) 55
3.2 Health outcomes associated with changes in peak daily ambient
ozone concentration in epidemiological studies 57
3.3 Health outcome associated with NO exposure in epidemiological
2
studies 59
3.4 Health effects associated with low-level carbon monoxide exposure,
based on carboxyhaemoglobin levels 60
3.5 Recent published studies describing blood lead levels in developing
countries 61
4.1 WHO air quality guidelines for ‘classical’compounds 71
4.2 WHO air quality guidelines for non-carcinogenic compounds 72
4.3 WHO air quality guidelines for carcinogenic compounds 74
4.4 EU limit values for outdoor air quality (health protection) 83
5.1 Rapid epidemiological assessment characteristics 92
5.2 Some criteria for establishing causality 94
6.1 Summary of measured TSP concentrations (µg/m3) in four
URBAIR cities 112
6.2 Estimated annual health impacts and their costs related to PM
10
pollution in the four URBAIR cities 115
6.3 CBA of selected abatement measures in Manila,1992 (annual costs) 118
6.4 Summary of CBA results,three URBAIR cities 119
6.5 Abatement costs and emissions reduction potentials of various
SO control options 122
2
6.6 SO concentration reduction potential and costs for each control
2
option 123
6.7 Total costs,concentration reduction potential and costs per
percentage point of reduced concentrations for various control
options 125
7.1 Typical concentration levels of TSP matter indoors from biofuel
combustion measured through area and personal sampling 132