Optics of Charged Particle Analyzers

235 Pages·2010·7.84 MB·English

by  Peter W. Hawkes (Eds.)

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
PETER W. HAWKES
CEMES-CNRS
Toulouse,France
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Contributors
W.S.Bacsa 1
CEMES-CNRS and Universite´ de Toulouse, 29, Rue Jeanne Marvig,
BP94347,31055ToulouseCedex4,France
RuyH.A.FariasandErasmoRecami 33
LNLS-Laborato´rioNacionaldeLuzS´ıncrotron,Campinas,S.P.,Brazil;
and Facolta` di Ingegneria, Universita` statale di Bergamo, Italy, and
INFN–SezionediMilano,Milan,Italy
AndrewNeice 117
StanfordUniversityMedicalCenter,Stanford,California,USA
A.SeverSˇkapinandP.Ropret 141
SlovenianNationalBuildingandCivilEngineeringInstitute,Dimicˇeva12,
1000Ljubljana,Slovenia;andInstitutefortheProtectionofCulturalHeri-
tage of Slovenia, Conservation Centre, Research Institute, Poljanska 40,
1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; and Museum Conservation Institute,
SmithsonianInstitution,4210SilverHillRoad,Suitland,Maryland20746,
USA
MarkusE.TestorfandMichaelA.Fiddy 165
Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA; and University of North
Carolina-Charlotte,USA
ix
Preface
Thepresentvolumeisalmostathematicvolumeonsubwavelengthmicro-
scopy for three of the chapters deal with different aspects of this subject,
which is currently the object of much research effort. The two remaining
chapters deal with the ‘‘chronon’’ and with the role of microscopy in the
finearts,otheraspectsofwhichIhopetocoverinfuturevolumes.
ThevolumebeginswithanaccountbyW.Bacsaofopticalinterference
closetosurfacesandwaysofusingthistoachievesubwavelengthresolu-
tion. The different families of standing waves are examined and the
potentialofthemethodsisdescribed.
ThisisfollowedbyahighlyunusualcontributionbyR.H.A.Fariasand
E. Recami, in which the discretization of time is studied. This leads the
authorstorecapitulatethefamiliartheoriesoftheelectronandalsotakes
them well beyond ‘‘electron physics’’; many original ideas are put for-
ward. This chapter, which forms a short monograph on the subject, will
surelystimulatefurtherdiscussion.
The third chapter brings us back to subwavelength imaging; here,
A.Neicediscussesthelimitationsofthevariousmethods.Awholesection
is devoted to Pendry’s superlens and the concluding chapter examines
thelimitofresolution.
Manyopticalandelectronopticaltechniquesareusedtostudypaint-
ings, frescos and archaeological material. In the next chapter, A. Sever
SˇkapinandP.Ropretshowhowhistoricalpigmentsinwalllayerscanbe
analysed by optical and scanning electron microscopy and by energy-
dispersive techniques. They apply these methods to samples from a
numberofchurchesandotherbuildingsinSlovenia.
ThevolumeendswithalongaccountbyM.E.TestorfandM.A.Fiddy
onsuperresolution.Thisisawide-rangingchapterthatsetsoutfromthe
Rayleigh limit and Abbe’s theory, after which the notion of degrees of
freedomisexamined.ThisisfollowedbyLukoszsuperresolution,filters
andtheGerchberg—Papoulisalgorithm,withalastsectionongeneralized
sampling.Thisnicelycomplementstheearlierchaptersonsubwavelength
imaging, and some of that material is seen here from a different
standpoint.
Asalways,mythankstoalltheauthorsfortheireffortstomaketheir
subjectsaccessibletoawidereadership.
PeterW.Hawkes
vii
Future Contributions
A.AbramoandL.Geretti
Deterministicandstatisticalneurons
S.Ando
Gradientoperatorsandedgeandcornerdetection
N.Baddour
2DFouriertransformsinpolarcoordinates
A.BardeaandR.Naaman(Vol.164)
Magnetolithography:fromthebottom-uproutetohighthroughput
D.Batchelor
Softx-raymicroscopy
E.BayroCorrochano
Quaternionwavelettransforms
C.Beeli
Structureandmicroscopyofquasicrystals
C.BobischandR.Mo¨ller
Ballisticelectronmicroscopy
F.Bociort
Saddle-pointmethodsinlensdesign
A.Buchau
Boundaryelementorintegralequationmethodsforstaticandtime-dependent
problems
N.V.Budko
Negativevelocityandtheelectromagneticfield
E.Buhr
Transmissionscanningelectronmicroscopy
R.Castan˜eda(Vol.164)
Theopticsofspatialcoherencewavelets
A.CornejoRodriguezandF.GranadosAgustin
Ronchigramquantification
xi
xii FutureContributions
T.Cremer
Neutronmicroscopy
E.deChambost
ThehistoryofCAMECA
J.DebayleandJ.C.Pinoli
Theoryandapplicationsofgeneraladaptiveneighbourhoodimageprocessing
A.X.Falca˜o
Theimageforestingtransform
R.G.Forbes
Liquidmetalionsources
C.Fredembach
Eigenregionsforimageclassification
R.Fru¨ke
EUVscanningtransmissionmicrocopy
A.Go¨lzha¨user
Recentadvancesinelectronholographywithpointsources
P.HanandH.E.Hwang
PhaseretrievalintheFresneldomain
M.Haschke
Micro-XRFexcitationinthescanningelectronmicroscope
L.Hermi,M.A.Khabou,andM.B.H.Rhouma
ShaperecognitionbasedoneigenvaluesoftheLaplacian
M.I.Herrera
ThedevelopmentofelectronmicroscopyinSpain
R.Hill
Theheliumionmicroscope
A.ImiyaandT.Sakai
Gradientstructureofimagesinscalespace
M.S.Isaacson
EarlySTEMdevelopment
K.Ishizuka
Contrasttransferandcrystalimages
A.Jacobo
IntracavitytypeIIsecond-harmonicgenerationforimageprocessing
L.Kipp
Photonsieves
T.Kohashi
Spin-polarizedscanningelectronmicroscopy
FutureContributions xiii
O.L.Krivanek
Aberration-correctedSTEM
R.K.LearyandR.M.D.Brydson
Chromaticaberrationcorrection,thenextstepinelectronmicrocopy
S.LefevreandJ.Weber
Mathematicalmorphology,videoandsegmentation
R.Leitgeb
Fourierdomainandtimedomainopticalcoherencetomography
B.Lencova´
Moderndevelopmentsinelectronopticalcalculations
J.-c.Li(Vol.164)
FastFouriertransformcalculationofdiffractionintegrals
H.Lichte
Newdevelopmentsinelectronholography
M.Marrocco
Discretediffraction
M.Matsuya
CalculationofaberrationcoefficientsusingLiealgebra
P.Midgley
Precessionmicroscopy
L.Muray
Miniatureelectronopticsandapplications
S.NepijkoandG.Scho¨nhense
Analysisofopticalsystems,contrastdepthandmeasurementofelectricand
magneticfielddistributionontheobjectsurfaceinmirrorelectronmicroscopy
S.NepijkoandG.Scho¨nhense
Theuseofelectronholographytomeasureelectricandmagneticfieldsandother
practicalapplications
M.A.O’Keefe
Electronimagesimulation
H.Ott
Scanningelectronmicroscopyofgaseousspecimens
D.PaganinandT.Gureyev
Intensity-linearmethodsininverseimaging
N.PapamarkosandA.Kesidis
TheinverseHoughtransform
K.S.Pedersen,A.Lee,andM.Nielsen
Thescale-spacepropertiesofnaturalimages
xiv FutureContributions
H.Sawada
Recentdevelopmentsinaberrationcorrectionforelectronlenses
T.Schulz
Thermoluminescenceinscanningelectronmicroscopy
R.Shimizu,T.Ikuta,andY.Takai
Defocusimagemodulationprocessinginrealtime
T.Soma
Focus-deflectionsystemsandtheirapplications
P.SussnerandM.E.Valle
Fuzzymorphologicalassociativememories
V.Syrovoy
Theoryofdensechargedparticlebeams
I.Talmon
Studyofcomplexfluidsbytransmissionelectronmicroscopy
M.Teschke
Phase-contrastimaging
Y.Uchikawa
Electrongunoptics
Z.Umul
Theboundarydiffractionwave
E.Wolf
Historyandarecentdevelopmentinthetheoryofreconstructionofcrystalline
solidsfromX-raydiffractionexperiments
L.Yaroslavsky
Samplingandimagerecoveryfromsparsedata
D.Yi(Vol.164)
Fourth-orderpartialdifferentialequationsforimageenhancement
1
Chapter
Optical Interference near
Surfaces and its Application in
Subwavelength Microscopy
W. S. Bacsa
Contents 1. OverviewofOpticalInterferenceNearSurfaces 1
2. OpticalMicroscopyandOpticalStandingWaves 3
3. OpticalStandingWavesNearSurfaces,Holography,
andInterferenceSubstrates 4
4. Intermediate-FieldandSurfaceStandingWaves 7
5. LateralStandingWaves 10
6. ReconstructionofIntermediate-FieldImages 22
7. TalbotEffectandPhaseSingularities 28
8. ConclusionandPerspectives 30
Acknowledgement 30
References 30
1. OVERVIEW OF OPTICAL INTERFERENCE NEAR SURFACES
Tremendousprogress inprojection lithography andimprint lithography
over the past two decades has made it possible to control the surface
structure of semiconductors at a fraction of the optical wavelength
(Rothschild,2005).Theconsiderablecontrolofthestructureofthinfilms
affords new opportunities to explore optics with much greater detail at
subwavelength scales. This means that new functional materials can be
CEMES-CNRSandUniversite´deToulouse,29,RueJeanneMarvig,BP94347,31055ToulouseCedex4,France
AdvancesinImagingandElectronPhysics,Volume163,ISSN1076-5670,DOI:10.1016/S1076-5670(10)63001-7.
Copyright#2010ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
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