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ETH Library On Sources of Economic Growth and Comparative Advantage Doctoral Thesis Author(s): Schetter, Ulrich Publication date: 2014 Permanent link: https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-a-010266484 Rights / license: In Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Permitted This page was generated automatically upon download from the ETH Zurich Research Collection. For more information, please consult the Terms of use. Diss. ETH No. 21845 On Sources of Economic Growth and Comparative Advantage A dissertation submitted to ETH ZURICH for the degree of DOCTOR OF SCIENCES presented by ULRICH SCHETTER M.A. in Quantitative Economics and Finance, University of St. Gallen CEMS Master in International Management born on March 2, 1981 in Offenbach a.M., Germany accepted on the recommendation of Prof. Dr. Hans Gersbach (ETH Zurich), examiner Prof. Dr. Antoine Bommier (ETH Zurich), co-examiner 2014 Acknowledgements Writing this PhD thesis has been a challenging, at times tedious, but also very enjoyable andenrichingexperience. Itisatruepleasuretoexpressmygratitudetoallthepeoplethat have accompanied me on this journey and enlightened my days in many ways. Without theirsupport,thisthesiscouldandwouldnotbe. First and foremost, I am indebted to my supervisor, Hans Gersbach, who has guided my way into economic research while giving me room to follow my own ideas and develop my own research agenda. I greatly appreciate his continuous support. My research bene- fited immensely from the time and insights he shared with me and the stimulating work- ingenvironmentatthechairofMacroeconomics: InnovationandPolicy. Iamgratefulfor havinghadthechancetowritemydoctoralthesisunderhissupervision. Iamthankfultomyco-supervisor,AntoineBommier,forhisavailabilityandsupport,and to Margrit Buser for proofreading parts of my thesis and for repeatedly offering her kind assistance. Maik Schneider is a co-author of chapter 3 of this thesis. My warmest thanks for the invaluable advice he shared with me on innumerable occasions. Our discussions on our joint work, economics in general, and beyond, inspired and greatly enriched my research path. Hisintellectualcuriositywillservemeasanexamplethroughoutmycareer. ThescientificfeedbackofMartinScheffelandOriolTejadahelpedmarkedlytorefinethis workandIamverygratefulfortheirsupportandmotivation. At the Study Center Gerzensee, a foundation of the Swiss National Bank, I attended the SwissProgramforBeginningDoctoralStudentsinEconomicsandtwoadvancedcourses. The training and the study environment that the Study Center offers are one of a kind. I am grateful to the institution, as well as to all the professors, who dedicate their time and energy to guiding young researchers and sharing their knowledge and passion for economics. MytimeatGerzenseehasbeenalastingsourceofmotivationandinspiration. My special thanks go to Bo Honoré and Sergio Rebelo for their invaluable advice on my research. Sergio Rebelo’s generous support has also been key in developing my future career. During my studies at Gerzensee, I was still employed at NERA Economic Consulting in Frankfurt. I am grateful for the support NERA offered me in the pursuit of my doctoral studies. I wish to specifically mention Bastian Gottschling and Hendrik Fügemann. If it was not for them, I would probably have started my doctorate earlier, but I would iii iv Acknowledgements definitelynothavebeenabletosuccessfullyaccomplishmygraduatestudiesatGerzensee whileworkingatNERA. It is a privilege to have been given the opportunity to write my doctoral thesis at ETH Zurich. Iamthankfultoallthepeoplethatcontributetoitsoutstandinginfrastructureand administrativeservices,whichfacilitatedmyresearchinmanyways. Both at the Study Center Gerzensee and at ETH Zurich I have been fortunate to be part of a group of very special individuals. My warmest thanks to Afsoon, Christian, Elias, Florian, Jörg, Johannes, Jürg M., Jürg V., Kamali, Maik, Marina, Martin, Noemi, Oriana, Oriol,Philippe,Quirin,Svenja,Vitalijs,VolkerB.,VolkerH.,Yulin,andYves. Felixofferedmeshelteratthebeginningandtheendofthisjourney. Hehasenrichedmy days with countless lunch breaks, tennis and dart battles, and was always ready to listen to my excitement or complaints and to challenge them with an honest opinion. At times he even managed to keep up the illusion of being interested in my research. I am deeply thankfultoatruefriend. ShouldalltheeffortsthatIdedicatedtothisworkbeinvain,myheartwillalwaysembrace this journey with gratitude, as it offered me the greatest gift that life can give: the love andfaithofOriana. To all my friends, to Christoph and Franziska, to Kristin and Florian, to Jonathan and Benjamin: Youareapermanentsourceofsunshineinmylife. Thankyou. To my parents, Sieglinde and Helmut, for your endless love and unconditional support thatisthebasisofeverythingIdo: Danke. Zurich,March2014 UlrichSchetter Abstract Thisthesisconsiderssourcesofeconomicgrowthandcomparativeadvantage. PartsIand IIfocusonbasicresearch. Theyanalyzetheprospectsoffosteringtechnologicalprogress, and hencegrowth, through policy-making inthis area. Part III complementsthis analysis byexaminingtheimplicationsofacountry’slevelofdevelopmentforitscompetitiveness in international trade. These implications will feed back into the incentives to implement growth-orientedbasicresearchpolicies. Ourresultsfollow. PartI We identify potentialities for guiding policy in the area of basic research. We first provide an extended review of basic research and offer new insights on its linkages to key economic variables and economic growth. This guides us in identifying and dis- cussing a series of emerging policy issues: (1) a country’s openness as a key factor for optimalbasicresearchinvestments,(2)theroleofbasicresearchinenablingacountryto catch up with the world technological frontier, (3) the optimal mix of basic and applied research, (4) profound links between the manufacturing base and basic research, (5) lim- its on commercialization and patenting of basic research, and (6) the scope for targeting basicresearch. PartII We examine the public provision and financing of basic research. Basic re- search is a public good that benefits innovating entrepreneurs, but its provision and fi- nancing also affect the entire economy – in particular, occupational choices of potential entrepreneurs, wages, dividends, and aggregate output. We show that the impact of basic research on the general economy rationalizes a taxation pecking order to finance basic research. More specifically, in a society with desirably dense entrepreneurial activity, a largeshareoffundsforbasicresearchshouldbefinancedbylaborincometaxation,while a minor share should be left to profit taxation. Such tax schemes will induce a signifi- cant proportion of agents to become entrepreneurs, thereby rationalizing substantial in- vestments in basic research that fosters their innovation prospects. These entrepreneurial economies, however, may make a majority of workers worse off, giving rise to a conflict between efficiency and equality. We discuss ways of mitigating this conflict and thus strengtheningthepoliticalsupportforgrowthpolicies. PartIII We analyze the interplay between product-intrinsic complexity and endoge- nously chosen product quality in international trade. Our work reveals a novel mecha- nism that can explain a rich set of empirical observations: (1) how specialization within products on quality can equalize comparative advantages across products, (2) why poor countries do not export a broad range of products nonetheless, and (3) why the share of v vi Abstract productsforwhichthisisthecasetendstobedecreasingovertime. Ourtheorymotivates the use of a censored regression model to estimate the link between a country’s GDP per capita and the quality of its exports. Following this empirical strategy, we find a much strongerrelationshipthanwhenusingOLS,inlinewithourtheory. Zusammenfassung Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit Ursprüngen des Wachstums und der Wettbe- werbsfähigkeit von Volkswirtschaften. Teile I und II legen ihren Fokus auf Grundlagen- forschung. Sie untersuchen Möglichkeiten zur Förderung des technologischen Fort- schritts,undsomitdeswirtschaftlichenWachstums,mittelspolitischerInitiativenaufdem Gebiet der Grundlagenforschung. Teil III komplementiert diese Analysen, indem er un- tersucht, wie sich die Entwicklungsstufe eines Landes in seiner internationalen Wettbe- werbsfähigkeitwiderspiegelt. DieAuswirkungenaufdieWettbewerbsfähigkeitsindnicht zuletzt entscheidend für die Erfolgsaussichten einer Wachstumsförderung durch Grund- lagenforschung. Im Folgenden werden die Ergebnisse der einzelnen Teile kurz zusam- mengefasst. TeilI Wir ergründen Möglichkeiten der Politikberatung auf dem Gebiet der Grund- lagenforschung. Wir beginnen mit einem systematischen Überblick über die Grundla- genforschung und ihre volkswirtschaftliche Bedeutung. Auf dieser Basis identifizieren und diskutieren wir wichtige politische Fragestellungen: (1) die optimalen Investitionen einer Volkswirtschaft in Grundlagenforschung in Abhängigkeit von ihrer Offenheit, (2) die Bedeutung der Grundlagenforschung für den Aufholprozess von Schwellenländern, (3) die optimale Verknüpfung von Grundlagenforschung mit angewandter Forschung, (4)derZusammenhangzwischenGrundlagenforschungunddereinheimischenIndustrie, (5) Grenzen der Kommerzialisierung von Grundlagenforschung, (6) Möglichkeiten einer gezieltenAusrichtungvonGrundlagenforschungaufeinzelneBereiche. TeilII Wir analysieren die öffentliche Bereitstellung und Finanzierung von Grundla- genforschung. Grundlagenforschung ist ein öffentliches Gut, welches unmittelbar inno- vativen Unternehmern zugute kommt. Darüber hinausgehend hat die Bereitstellung und FinanzierungvonGrundlagenforschungbedeutendeAuswirkungenaufdiegesamteVolks- wirtschaft, insbesondere auf Unternehmertum, Löhne, Gewinne und den aggregierten Wohlstand. Wir zeigen, dass diese Auswirkungen eine hierarchische Steuerpolitik recht- fertigen. Wenn Unternehmertum aus gesamtgesellschaftlicher Sicht wünschenswert ist, dannsollteGrundlagenforschung–unddieStaatsausgabenimAllgemeinen–zuvorderst über Steuern auf das Arbeitseinkommen und nur nachrangig über eine Besteuerung der Unternehmensgewinne finanziert werden. Diese Steuerpolitik fördert innovatives Un- ternehmertum zusätzlich und macht somit von seiner Komplementarität mit Grundla- genforschung Gebrauch. Derartige politische Massnahmen haben jedoch bedeutende Verteilungseffekte und sie können negative Auswirkungen auf eine Mehrzahl der Bevöl- vii viii Zusammenfassung kerung haben. Wir diskutieren Möglichkeiten, diese Verteilungseffekte abzumildern und dadurchdiepolitischenErfolgsaussichtenvonWachstumspolitikzuverbessern. TeilIII Wir analysieren das Zusammenspiel von Produktkomplexität und -qualität im Außenhandel. Wirargumentieren,dassdieKomplexitätdenProdukteninhärentist,wäh- rendUnternehmendieQualitätihrerProdukteselbstbestimmenkönnen,inAbhängigkeit von der Wettbewerbsfähigkeit der Länder, in denen sie produzieren. Unsere Arbeit zeigt einen Mechanismus auf, der bislang in der Literatur unbeachtet blieb. Er kann wichtige empirische Befunde erklären: (1) wie Spezialisierung innerhalb von Produktkategorien auf Qualität komparative Vorteile ausgleichen kann, (2) weshalb dennoch Entwicklungs- länder für viele Produkte nicht wettbewerbsfähig sind, (3) weshalb der Anteil der Pro- dukte, für die das gilt, über die Zeit abnimmt. Unsere theoretischen Analysen führen zu einem Censored Regression Modell zur Schätzung des Zusammenhangs zwischen dem Pro-Kopf-Einkommen einer Volkswirtschaft und der Qualität ihrer Exporte. Das hier vorgeschlagene Schätzverfahren deutet auf einen weitaus stärkeren Zusammenhang als bisheraufBasiseineslinearenRegressionsmodellsangenommen. DieseBeobachtungist imEinklangmitunseremtheoretischenModell. Contents List of Figures xiii List of Tables xv Introduction 1 I Basic Research and Growth Policy 7 1 Basic Research: Key Characteristics and Economic Concepts 9 1.1 Introduction 9 1.2 Definitionofbasicresearch–keycharacteristics 12 1.3 Significanceofbasicresearch 13 1.3.1 Investmentsintobasicresearch 13 1.3.2 Importanceofbasicresearchforinnovationandgrowth 16 1.4 Theeconomicsofbasicresearch 20 1.4.1 Economicviewsonbasicresearch 20 1.4.2 Modelingbasicresearch 21 1.5 Basicresearchandthepublicsector 25 2 Basic Research Policies 29 2.1 Introduction 29 2.2 Howmuchbasicresearch? 29 2.3 Basicandappliedresearch 36 2.4 Basicresearchandthemanufacturingbase 39 2.5 Intellectualpropertyrightsforbasicresearch 42 2.6 Commercializingbasicresearch 46 2.7 Allocatingbasicresearchfunds 48 2.8 Conclusion 52 II Taxation, Innovation, and Entrepreneurship 55 3 Foundations and Key Results 57 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Literature 61 3.3 Themodel 66 3.3.1 Production 66 3.3.2 Behaviorofintermediate-goodproducers 67 3.3.3 Innovation 67 3.3.4 Financingscheme 68 3.3.5 Sequenceofevents 69 3.4 Equilibriumforgivenpolicies 70 ix

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4.2 Analysis of Laffer Curves. 96 . are rooted in the discovery of the DNA.3 Hence innovation is grounded in past basic re- search, and basic .. (2013) for recent examples of economic literature classifying research into basic research and .. example, ideas, technologies, theories, and prototypes.
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