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Ocean Studies Introduction to Oceanography Fourth Edition Douglas A. Segar Stacy W. Kish Elizabeth W. Mills Kira A. Nugnes, Managing Editor AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY Education Program Boston, MA | Washington, DC American Meteorological Society Education Program Founded in 1919, the American Meteorological Society (AMS) is the nation’s premier scientific and professional organization promoting and disseminating information about the atmospheric, oceanic, and hydrologic sciences. Our more than 13,000 U.S. and International members include scientists, researchers, educators, broadcast meteorologists, students, weather enthusiasts, and other professionals in the fields of weather, water, and climate. The Education Program is the initiative of the American Meteorological Society fostering the teaching of the atmospheric, oceanic, and hydrologic sciences at the precollege level and in community college, college and university programs. It is a unique partnership between scientists and educators at all levels with the ultimate goals of (1) attracting young people to further studies in science, mathematics, and technology, and (2) promoting public scientific literacy. This is done via the development and dissemination of scientifically authentic, up-to-date, and instructionally sound learning and resource materials for teachers and students. AMS Ocean Studies is an introductory undergraduate oceanography course generally offered in partnership with college and university faculty. DataStreme Ocean is a graduate-level teacher professional development program that increases the content knowledge and pedagogical skills of in- service K-12 teachers so they feel more confident engaging oceanographic topics in the classroom. Both courses provide a comprehensive study of the principles of oceanography and appropriate investigations and applications focusing on web-delivered real-world current data. Ocean Studies: Introduction to Oceanography — 4th Edition ISBN-10 1-944970-09-6 ISBN-13 978-1-944970-09-3 Copyright © 2018 by the American Meteorological Society All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Published by the American Meteorological Society 45 Beacon Street, Boston, MA 02108 Printed in the United States of America The first edition of this book was published under the title Online Ocean Studies. Cover photograph: The rock-covered Kalalau Beach at sunset. Na Pali Coast State Park, Kauai, Hawaii. Courtesy of National Geographic. Welcome to the American Meteorological Society (AMS) Ocean Studies: Introduction to Oceanography textbook! Ocean Studies explores the role of the ocean in the Earth system with special emphasis on the flow and transformations of water and energy into and out of the ocean, physical and chemical properties of ocean water, ocean circulation, marine life and habitats, interactions between the ocean and the other components of the Earth system (i.e., hydrosphere, cryosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere), and the human/societal impacts on and response to those interactions. This book provides the physical, chemical, geological, and biological foundations for understanding the world ocean. This fourth edition is a major revision to Ocean Studies, with significant updates to content and imagery. New, expanded, or significantly revised topics include ocean thermal energy conversion, hydrothermal vent systems and communities, hot spot volcanism, ocean acidification and impacts on marine life, ocean deoxygenation, westward intensification of boundary currents, wind wave generation, tide-generating forces, natural coastal features and human alterations, rip currents, types of estuaries, atmospheric rivers, marine microbial ecosystems, bioaccumulation and biomagnification, harmful algal blooms, dead zones, coastal city flooding and other climate change ramifications, ocean life zones, marine invertebrates, ocean sediments and stratigraphy, oceanic Kelvin waves, El Niño and La Niña, the Madden-Julian Oscillation, the effect of climate change on the ocean, paleoclimatology and paleoceanography, ocean instrumentation including gliders and ocean observatories, toxic substances and the ocean, recent ocean and climate policies, geoengineering, and ocean mining. Ocean Studies may serve as a stand-alone textbook in an undergraduate college course on oceanography. It is also the reference book for AMS Ocean Studies, a turnkey undergraduate-level curriculum package developed, licensed, and nationally implemented by AMS. Each chapter corresponds to one week of the AMS Ocean Studies course. Companion Investigations Manual and RealTime Ocean Portal provide students with weekly investigations on ocean science. These investigations engage students in observation, prediction, data analysis, inference, and critical thinking. The course can be offered in face-to-face, blended, or online instructional environments. Ocean Studies is also a key component of the AMS DataStreme Ocean graduate-level teacher professional development course, supported in-part by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration through the Cooperative Program for Earth System Education (AMS/NOAA CPESE). DataStreme Ocean increases the content knowledge and pedagogical skills of in-service K-12 teachers so they feel more confident engaging oceanographic topics in the classroom. The Ocean Studies textbook and course investigations provide content knowledge in support of A Framework for K–12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas (2012) and the Next Generation Science Standards: For States, By States (2013). The overarching goal of the AMS Education Program is science literacy for all. Seeing Student Learn Science: Integrating Assessment and Instruction in the Classroom (2017) explains how literacy includes the comprehension of the value and application of science and engineering, the ability to do evidence-based reasoning, and the understanding of the work of scientists and engineers. The grasp of these interconnected scientific ideas will help all students as they progress through their studies into adulthood. The content emphasized within Ocean Studies relates to Ocean Literacy: The Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts for Learners of All Ages (2013) and contributes to the development of overall scientific literacy. Students using the Ocean Studies textbook can explore twelve principal themes, plus three independent themes, arranged by chapter. Themes are organized so that concepts build logically upon one another to explore the physical laws that determine how important processes operate in the ocean and the role of these processes in the Earth system. The new Introductory Chapter of Ocean Studies highlights core areas of oceanography. Chapter 1 introduces the Earth system and examines the ocean’s place in it. Chapter 2 focuses on characteristics of the ocean basin that are largely the products of plate tectonics. Chapter 3 deals with unique physical and chemical properties of ocean water, and Chapter 4 investigates air-sea interactions and the flow of heat energy in the Earth-atmosphere-ocean system. The next three chapters cover the dynamic ocean, including surface and deep-ocean currents (Chapter 5), waves and tides (Chapter 6), and shoreline processes (Chapter 7). Chapters 8 and 9 examine marine ecosystems and life in the ocean. Chapter 10 focuses on the ocean, atmosphere, and climate variability. Chapter 11 details the origin and distribution of ocean sediments and how they are used in stratigraphy. Chapter 12 provides an overview of climate science and climate change, including the role of the ocean, as well as future climate predictions using models, cycles, and analogs and the consequences of a warming planet. The remaining independent chapters, which can be discussed at any point of the course, consider ocean exploration (Chapter 13), ocean stewardship (Chapter 14), and ocean and climate public policy (Chapter 15). Each chapter opens with a list of Learning Objectives, a Central Question, which is a broad-based query that links chapter concepts and provides a central focus for that week’s study, and a Case-in-Point study. The Case-in-Point provides an authentic, relevant, and real-life event or issue that highlights or applies to one or more of the main concepts covered in the chapter. In addition, it previews the chapter, engaging reader interest early. Chapter 8 (Marine Ecosystems), for example, opens with a discussion of the dynamic relationship between kelp forests, sea urchins and their predators, and human activities. Chapter content is science-rich, interweaving recent outcomes from oceanographic research. Each chapter closes with a list of Basic Understandings and Enduring Ideas, Key Terms, and Review and Critical Thinking questions. One or more essays (“For Further Exploration”) at the end of each chapter address in depth specific topics that complement a concept covered in the narrative. Examples include The Challenges of Studying the Ocean Environment, Hot Spot Volcanism, Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Calcium Carbonate Structures, and Monitoring Sea Level from Space. After the essays, the Web Resources provide websites and articles that pertain to chapter content and is followed by a list of Scientific Literature. Bold-faced terms in the narrative are included in a list of Key Words and are defined in the Glossary. Appendices cover unit conversions and milestones in the history of ocean science. New to the fourth edition are Topics in Depth. Found throughout every chapter, they allow the instructor and students to engage a topic that may serve as a jumping off point from the narrative. Instructors may choose to assign these topics as required reading, but they are not essential to the chapter content. The fourth edition features many new full-color photographs, as well as 90 new line drawings from Dr. Douglas A. Segar. These drawings are directly used, adapted, or modified with permission from Segar, D. A., 2018: Introduction to Ocean Sciences, Fourth Edition. Additional line drawings used in the fourth edition were originally created by Norman J. Frisch. Ocean Studies and Pedagogy The new Ocean Studies textbook and corresponding course investigations follow three-dimensional learning emphasized by the A Framework for K- 12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas (2012) and the Next Generation Science Standards: For States, By States (2013) to investigate the scientific basis of the workings of the Earth system. The role of water in Earth’s surface processes and global climate are Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) Earth and Space Science Disciplinary Core Ideas. Ocean Studies provides K–12 educators participating in DataStreme Ocean with process and content knowledge to help them teach in the Earth and Space Science disciplinary area. Some concepts also assist teachers with components of the Physical Science and Life Science disciplinary areas. Key to the NGSS is that students learn disciplinary core ideas in the context of science and engineering practices. For the students to learn in this way, the AMS believes that it is important to present teacher professional development course content in this context. Course investigations tied to Ocean Studies enable teachers to investigate scientific concepts similar to scientists, using real-world and sometimes near real-time data to draw conclusions while using models to understand the concepts. Ocean Studies also provides Earth science-based examples of NGSS crosscutting concepts, which deepen the understanding of disciplinary core ideas and unite oceanography with other scientific disciplines. The key components of three-dimensional learning are disciplinary core ideas, science and engineering practices, and crosscutting concepts. Earth science, including the ocean science presented in Ocean Studies and corresponding course investigations, is ideal subject matter for reinforcing three-dimensional learning. Seeing Student Learn Science: Integrating Assessment and Instruction in the Classroom (2017) states that “three- dimensional learning is not just important for the education of future scientists and engineers; it is essential to help all students understand how science works and how to use that understanding to learn, make decisions, and understand their world throughout their lives and in their careers as adults. It’s a key aspect of the new vision for science learning.” Much comprehensive, cross-disciplinary work in student learning is K–12 focused. At the undergraduate-level, most educational research has been focused on specific STEM disciplines. The publication Discipline-Based Education Research: Understanding and Improving Learning in Undergraduate Science and Engineering (2012) states that “DBER scholars have devoted considerable attention to effective instructional strategies and to students’ conceptual understanding, problem solving, and use of representations. Key findings from DBER are consistent with cognitive science research and studies in K-12 education.” Acknowledgments Ocean Studies is the product of collaboration among many individuals with extensive scientific backgrounds and teaching experience. The lead author of the new fourth edition of Ocean Studies is Dr. Douglas A. Segar (Ph.D., University of Liverpool, England) an oceanographer with an extensive background in marine science, natural resource management, and environmental pollution research, marine conservation policy, and university instruction. Dr. Segar is joined by co-authors Stacy W. Kish (M.S., Oregon State University), a geologist and oceanographer experienced in science communications, and Elizabeth W. Mills (M.S., The Pennsylvania State University), a meteorologist/science writer and Associate Director, AMS Education Program. The Managing Editor for the fourth edition is Kira A. Nugnes (M.S., Millersville University) a meteorologist and Managing Editor/Content Specialist, AMS Education Program. Many AMS Education Program staff provided major contributions to the Ocean Studies fourth edition textbook. Wendy E. Abshire, Director, and Dr. James A. Brey, Senior Science Consultant and Past Director, provided overall project vision and guidance. The Content Editor of the fourth edition is Dr. Ira W. Geer, Senior Education Fellow, and the Copy Editor, who also provided biology content expertise, is Katie L. O’Neill, Content Specialist. Lindsey A. Systemann, Consultant, created textbook design art and formatted the line drawings used throughout this book. The final manuscript was assembled and formatted by Terence M. Mulligan, Publications Assistant, and Bernard A. Blair, Associate Director of Business Operations. Past AMS Education Program interns Tigist Jima and Andrew Sussman also assisted with textbook content. The fourth edition benefited from climate content recommendations by Dr. Chad M. Kauffman, Professor of Earth Sciences, California University of Pennsylvania, and Curriculum Development Coordinator/DataStreme Lead, AMS Education Program and content review by Dr. Robert S. Weinbeck, Consultant, AMS Education Program. Special thanks are extended to Dr. David R. Smith, Consultant, AMS Education Program, and former Chair, Department of Oceanography, U.S. Naval Academy and Dr. Edward J. Hopkins of the University of Wisconsin-Madison and Consultant, AMS Education Program. We also thank the group of outstanding K-12 educators and scientists who serve as DataStreme Ocean LIT mentors and the many faculty who offer the AMS Ocean Studies course. The first edition of this textbook was derived from a manuscript co- authored by M. Grant Gross of Washington College (MD) and Elizabeth Gross of the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research, International Council for Science. Joseph M. Moran, Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin-Green Bay, was managing editor for editions one and two and was principal author of the third edition. Certain textual sections and tables in the fourth edition have been used (some with modification) from Segar, D. A., 2018: Introduction to Ocean Sciences, Fourth Edition, available online at http://www.reefimages.com/oceansci. We are grateful to Dr. David Kirchman, University of Delaware, for his thorough review of the biological oceanography found in Chapters 8 and 9. We acknowledge with great appreciation the assistance of the following persons who answered questions, supplied images, and/or reviewed sections