Ocean structures: construction, materials, and operations

344 Pages·2017·52.416 MB·English

by  Chandrasekaran, Srinivasan, Jain, Arvind Kumar

Ocean
Structures
Construction,
Materials, and Operations

Ocean
Structures
Construction,
Materials, and Operations
Srinivasan Chandrasekaran
Arvind Kumar Jain
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
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and the CRC Press Web site at
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MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not
warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® soft- Contents
ware or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular
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Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
About the Authors ..................................................................................................xiii
Chapter 1 Ocean Structures ..................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction .............................................................................1
1.2 Offshore Industry ....................................................................1
1.3 Fixed-Type Platforms ..............................................................9
1.4 Jacket Platforms ....................................................................12
1.5 Gravity-Based Structures ......................................................17
1.6 Jack-Up Rigs .........................................................................20
1.7 Compliant-Type Platforms ....................................................23
1.8 Guyed Towers ........................................................................24
1.9 Articulated Towers ................................................................25
CRC Press
1.10 Tension Leg Platforms ...........................................................27
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 1.11 Spar Platforms .......................................................................33
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 1.12 Semisubmersibles and Drill Ships .........................................36
© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1.13 Floating, Production, Storage, and Off-Loading Platforms ......40
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business 1.14 Risers .....................................................................................47
No claim to original U.S. Government works 1.15 Offtake Systems ....................................................................48
1.16 Drilling Platforms ..................................................................48
Printed on acid-free paper
1.17 Petroleum and Natural Gas ...................................................54
Version Date: 20160804
1.18 Oil and Gas Exploration: Steps and Efforts ..........................55
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-9742-9 (Hardback) 1.19 Oil and Gas Well Drilling ......................................................56
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts 1.20 Offshore Drilling ...................................................................57
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume 1.21 Subsea Production Systems ...................................................59
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
1.22 Coastal Structures ..................................................................64
have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to
copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has 1.23 Sea Dikes ...............................................................................64
not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. 1.24 Seawalls .................................................................................67
1.25 Revetments ............................................................................72
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmit-
ted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, 1.26 Bulkheads ..............................................................................74
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, 1.27 Groins ....................................................................................76
without written permission from the publishers.
1.28 Breakwaters ...........................................................................78
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright. 1.29 Submerged Sill ......................................................................85
com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood 1.30 Beach Drains .........................................................................86
Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and
1.31 Jetties .....................................................................................86
registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC,
a separate system of payment has been arranged. 1.32 Training Walls .......................................................................87
1.33 Storm Surge Barriers .............................................................88
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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and the CRC Press Web site at
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v
vi Contents
Chapter 2 Environmental Loads on Ocean Structures .......................................89
2.1 Introduction ...........................................................................89
2.2 Wind Forces ...........................................................................89
2.3 Wave Forces ..........................................................................93
2.3.1 Single Design Wave Analysis .................................93
2.3.2 Random Wave Analysis ..........................................93
2.3.3 Wave Theories ........................................................93
2.3.4 Stokes Fifth-Order Wave Theory ............................95
2.4 Wave Spectra .........................................................................99
2.5 Wave Structure Interaction ..................................................100
2.5.1 Maximum Wave Force .........................................102
2.6 Floating Body: Hydrostatic Stability ...................................102
2.7 Buoyancy Forces .................................................................104
2.8 Current Forces .....................................................................105
2.9 Earthquake Loads ................................................................105
2.10 Ice and Snow Loads ............................................................107
2.11 Loads Due to Temperature Variations .................................109
2.12 Marine Growth ....................................................................109
2.13 Tides ....................................................................................109
2.14 Seafloor Movements ............................................................110
2.15 Wind Force Estimate Summary on a Compliant
Offshore Platform ................................................................110
2.16 Tutorials ...............................................................................113
Chapter 3 Materials for Ocean Structures ........................................................129
3.1 Introduction .........................................................................129
3.2 Selection of Materials ..........................................................131
3.3 Fundamental Properties .......................................................132
3.4 Effects of the Marine Environment on Materials ................134
3.5 Design Considerations .........................................................136
3.6 Steel Classification ..............................................................136
3.7 Groups of Steel ....................................................................137
3.7.1 Charpy Test ...........................................................139
3.7.2 Weldability ...........................................................140
3.8 Aluminum ............................................................................140
3.8.1 Alloying Elements ................................................142
3.9 Titanium ..............................................................................144
3.9.1 Classifications .......................................................145
3.9.2 Effect of Alloying Elements .................................145
3.10 Composites ..........................................................................147
3.10.1 Glass-Reinforced Epoxy ......................................149
3.11 Nonferrous Metals ...............................................................150
3.12 Fiberglass.............................................................................150
3.13 Wood ...................................................................................151
Contents vii
3.14 Glass-Reinforced Plastics ....................................................151
3.15 Buoyancy Materials .............................................................151
3.15.1 Syntactic Foams ...................................................152
3.16 Coatings ...............................................................................152
3.17 Concrete ..............................................................................153
3.18 Concrete in the Marine Environment ..................................153
3.18.1 Deterioration of Concrete .....................................154
3.18.2 Selection of Cement .............................................156
3.18.3 Inspection Methods ..............................................156
3.19 Protecting Concrete .............................................................157
3.19.1 Crystalline Technology .........................................159
3.20 Corrosion .............................................................................162
3.20.1 Corrosion in Steel .................................................164
3.20.2 Corrosion in Concrete ..........................................166
3.20.3 Realkalization .......................................................167
3.21 Corrosion Prevention ...........................................................167
3.22 Corrosion Protection ...........................................................168
3.23 Materials for Repair and Rehabilitation ..............................172
3.24 Repair of Concrete Structures .............................................175
3.24.1 Deterioration Due to Chemical Reaction .............176
3.24.2 Role of Chemical Admixtures in Repair ..............178
3.25 Advanced Methods of Repair ..............................................179
3.25.1 Cathodic Protection ..............................................179
3.25.2 Electrochemical Protection Systems ....................179
3.25.3 Nanolayered Coatings ..........................................180
3.26 Admixtures for Repair .........................................................180
3.26.1 Superplasticizers ...................................................181
3.26.2 Retarding Plasticizers ...........................................181
3.26.3 Air-Entraining Agents ..........................................181
3.26.4 Accelerators and Surface Retarders .....................181
3.26.5 Integral Waterproofing Compounds .....................182
3.26.6 Sprayed Concrete Accelerators ............................182
3.26.7 Hyper Plasticizers .................................................182
3.26.8 Curing Compounds ..............................................183
3.26.9 Grouts and Anchors ..............................................183
3.27 Special Repairs of Concrete Members ................................183
3.28 Protection of Coastal Embankment .....................................184
3.29 Structural Assessment of a Jetty for Enhancing
Load-Carrying Capacity: Case Study ..................................188
3.29.1 Experimental Investigations .................................189
3.29.2 Analytical Investigations ......................................189
3.30 Repair of Ocean Structures Using Chemical
Admixtures ...................................................................192
3.30.1 Electrochemical Protection System ......................192
3.30.2 Methodology of Realkalization ............................193
viii Contents
Chapter 4 Offshore Structures: Construction Methods and Equipment ...........195
4.1 Introduction .........................................................................195
4.2 Deepwater Risers .................................................................195
4.2.1 Top Tension Risers ...............................................196
4.2.2 Steel Catenary Risers ...........................................198
4.3 Flexible Risers .....................................................................199
4.3.1 Flexible Riser Configurations ..............................201
4.4 Freestanding Tower and Hybrid Risers ...............................201
4.5 Single-Line Offset Risers ....................................................202
4.6 Spoolable Risers ..................................................................205
4.7 Factors Influencing the Design of Ocean Structures ...........205
4.7.1 Designing for Wave Height ..................................206
4.8 Structural Form of Members ...............................................206
4.8.1 Orientation Layout of Offshore Platforms ...........207
4.8.2 Steps in Structural Design ....................................208
4.9 Construction Techniques .....................................................208
4.10 Construction Equipment ......................................................211
4.10.1 Infrastructure Required Onshore and Offshore .....215
4.11 Alternatives for Load-Out Operations .................................216
4.11.1 Installation of Jackets ...........................................218
4.12 Submarine Pipelines ............................................................224
4.13 Physical and Environmental Aspects of Offshore
Construction ........................................................................226
4.13.1 Geotechnical Aspects ...........................................227
4.14 Constraints on Offshore Construction and Installation .......228
4.15 Selection of Construction Equipment for Offshore Projects....229
4.16 Dredging ..............................................................................229
4.16.1 Dredging Operations ............................................230
4.16.2 Types of Dredging ................................................230
4.17 Dredgers ..............................................................................231
4.17.1 Mechanical Dredgers ...........................................231
4.17.1.1 Grab Dredger ......................................233
4.17.1.2 Backhoe Dredger ................................233
4.17.1.3 Clamshell Dredger ..............................234
4.17.1.4 Bucket Dredger ...................................235
4.17.1.5 Dipper Dredger ...................................235
4.17.1.6 Ladder Dredger...................................237
4.17.2 Hydraulic Dredgers ..............................................238
4.17.2.1 Plain Suction Type ..............................238
4.17.2.2 Cutterhead Type ..................................240
4.17.2.3 Dustpan Type ......................................240
4.17.2.4 Hopper Type .......................................241
4.18 Other Types of Dredgers .....................................................242
4.18.1 Jet-Lift and Airlift Dredgers .................................242
4.18.2 Auger Suction Dredger ........................................243
Contents ix
4.18.3 Pneumatic Dredger ...............................................243
4.18.4 Amphibious Dredger ............................................243
4.18.5 Water Injection Dredger .......................................243
4.19 Dredger Auxiliaries .............................................................244
4.20 Dredging Equipment and Specifications .............................244
4.20.1 Aquarius ...............................................................244
4.20.2 DCI Dredge BH-I .................................................245
4.20.3 DCI Dredge XVIII ...............................................246
4.21 Dredging Applications .........................................................247
4.22 Uncertainties ........................................................................248
4.23 Safety and Reliability Issues during Construction and
Installation ...........................................................................248
4.23.1 Engineering ..........................................................249
4.23.2 Fabrication ...........................................................249
4.23.3 Installation ............................................................249
4.24 Uncertainties in the Construction Process ...........................250
4.24.1 Fabrication ...........................................................250
4.24.2 Load-Out ..............................................................250
4.24.3 Transportation ......................................................250
4.24.4 Installation ............................................................251
4.24.5 Topside Installation ..............................................251
4.24.6 Human Factors .....................................................252
4.25 Seabed Anchors ...................................................................252
4.25.1 Loads on Anchors ................................................252
4.25.2 Temporary Anchors ..............................................253
4.25.2.1 Fluke-Style Anchor.............................253
4.25.2.2 Plough Anchor ....................................253
4.25.2.3 Bruce and Claw Anchors ....................254
4.25.3 Permanent Anchors ..............................................254
4.25.3.1 Mushroom Anchor ..............................255
4.25.3.2 Deadweight Anchor ............................255
4.25.3.3 Suction-Embedded Anchor.................255
4.25.4 Anchoring ............................................................256
4.25.5 Requirements of Anchors .....................................257
4.25.6 Commercial Anchors ...........................................258
4.26 Fenders ................................................................................258
4.26.1 Leg Fenders ..........................................................259
4.26.2 Cone Fenders .......................................................260
4.26.3 Cell Fenders .........................................................260
4.26.4 Arch Fenders ........................................................261
4.26.5 Cylindrical Fenders ..............................................261
4.26.6 Extruded Fenders .................................................262
4.26.7 Ladder Fenders .....................................................264