Nickel-Hydrogen Life Cycle Testing - Review and Analysis

208 Pages·2003·4.249 MB·English

by  Thaller, Lawrence H., Zimmerman, Albert H.

negordyH-lekciN Life Cycle gnitseT
Review and Analysis
Lawrence H. Thaller and Albert H. Zimmerman
The Aerospace Press ° 1E Segundo, California
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. • Reston, Virginia
The Aerospace Press
2350 E. El Segundo Boulevard
1E Segundo, California 90245-4691
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, Virginia 20191-4344
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Thaller, Lawrence H.
Nickel-hydrogen life cycle testing: review and analysis / Lawrence H.
Thaller and Albert H. Zimmerman.
p. cm.
ISBN 1-884989-13-6
.1 Nickel-hydrogen batteries--Testing. I. Zimmerman, Albert H. II.
Title.
TK2945.N53.T47 2003
621.31'2424--dc21
2003009089
On the cover is a picture of a flight battery used on a satellite; picture courtesy of
EaglePicher Technologies LLC.
Copyright © 2003 by The Aerospace Corporation
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be repro-
duced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, or stored in a data-
base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publishers.
Data and information appearing in this book are for informational purposes only.
The publishers and the author are not responsible for any injury or damage result-
ing from use or reliance, nor do the publishers or the author warrant that use or
reliance will be free from privately owned rights.
The material in this book was reviewed by the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile
Systems Center and approved for public release.
Preface
The review and analysis reported here are the outcomes of a project carried out
from 1998 to 2001 within the Energy Technology Department of The Aerospace
Corporation to examine the available results of different nickel-hydrogen life test-
ing programs that had been or were being carried out for low Earth orbit (LEO)
applications. The cycling programs, some of which are still in progress, were con-
ducted under different sponsorships and carded out at different testing facilities.
These facilities were at Martin Marietta (now Lockheed Martin Astronautics) in
Denver, Colorado, the Naval Surface Weapons Center in Crane, Indiana, and the
NASA Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio. The sponsors of these cycling
programs include the U.S. Air Force, the design group at NASA Glenn Research
Center, and NASA's Space Station Program. As a subset of this review and analy-
sis, selected tests at 60% depth of discharge (DOD) were examined with greater
detail than other tests, since they relate to the possible use of properly designed
cells coupled with validated recharge protocols in future 60% DOD LEO mis-
sions. Increasing the DOD from 20% to 40%, or possibly to 60%, would represent
a significant increase in the usable energy density of nickel-hydrogen batteries
along with significant reductions in the power system weights to a point where the
projected weight advantage of lithium-based systems would be less attractive.
The original intent of this project was to critically review the results of the
cycling tests in light of the static and dynamic modeling capabilities within the
Energy Technology Department. As the cells or cell components from these
cycling programs became available, they were provided for posttest analytical
studies in our Aerospace laboratory. The results of the posttest studies helped to
form relationships between external voltage and pressure signatures available
from testing programs and the subsequent findings made available from these
studies. The ultimate goal of this project was to be able to suggest cell designs and
recharge schemes that would be compatible with extended cycling durations at
deeper DODs.
In addition to the department's modeling capabilities, the staff's in-depth
understanding of the fundamental aspects of the nickel electrode provided valu-
able insight for our analyses. When results became available, the information was
originally distributed to individuals who had an interest in reducing the weight of
power systems for future LEO applications. It was prepared as a newsletter
approximately once a month over a 3-year period. In this book, these newsletters
have been reviewed and updated in light of new developments and insights gained
during the multiyear study.
It appears from the review to date of the different segments of the cycling pro-
grams made available to us that the potential usable energy density of nickel-
hydrogen cells is being underestimated, and deeper DODs could be used, within
certain limitations, for missions where battery weights are critical. Posttest analy-
ses of failed cells carried out as part of this project show that abbreviated cycle
vii
ecaferP
lives that occur during long-term life cycle testing can be attributed to one of four
major categories of causes:
.1 Cell designs that are unable to accommodate the structural and physical
changes that occur during cycling.
2. Manufacturing difficulties that are usually associated with the structure of the
nickel electrode.
.3 Capacity fading caused by chemical interaction of hydrogen gas with the cobalt
additive in the active material of the nickel electrode. There is also increasing
evidence for another type of capacity loss that can occur during the dry storage
of uncompleted cells. These losses occur before cycling begins.
4. Conditions selected for the recharge portion of the cycle that have been shown
to accelerate the rate of performance and capacity fading.
Factors ,1 2, and 3 are understood much better than factor 4. The majority of
the information to be presented here addresses findings and suggestions relative to
the first and fourth of these factors. Capacity fading caused by the interaction of
hydrogen with the cobalt dopant (the third factor) is often referred to as "hydrogen
sickness" and is reasonably well understood. It is only included here for complete-
ness. The almost universal use of cell designs utilizing nickel precharge has elimi-
nated this problem from the majority of the most recent production cells.
In addition to the newsletter reporting mentioned above, interim results of this
multiyear study have appeared as short publications, reports, or presentations that
addressed different aspects of the behavior of nickel-hydrogen cells. In preparing
the material for this summary document, we tried to minimize the scientific
aspects of the findings of this study and discuss them in general terms. Several
reports based on this study contain more formal treatments of the many different
aspects of the electrochemistry and physical chemistry of the nickel-hydroxide/
oxyhydroxide electrode that were revealed over the span of this 3-year study.
These are listed here.
.1 L. H. Thaller, "Status of Degradation Rates and Mechanisms in Nickel-
Hydrogen Cells," Proceedings of the 33rd International Energy Conversion
Engineering Conference, Paper No. IECEC-98-043 (Colorado Springs, CO,
Aug. 2-6, 1998).
2. L. H. Thaller and A. H. Zimmerman, "Electrochemical Voltage Spectroscopy
for Analysis of Nickel Electrodes," Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Battery
Conference on Applications and Advances (Long Beach, CA, Jan. 11-14,
2000), pp. 165-173.
.3 A. H. Zimmerman et al., "Nickel Electrode Failure by Chemical Deactivation
of Active Material," Proceedings of the 1998 NASA Aerospace Battery -kroW
shop (Huntsville, AL, Oct. 27-29, 1998).
4. L. .H Thaller, M. .V Quinzio, and G. A. ,oT "Volume Tolerance Characteristics
of a Nickel-Hydrogen Cell," Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Battery Con-
ference on Applications and Advances (Long Beach, CA, 1999), pp. 329-334.
iiiv
Preface
5. A. H. Zimmerman and M. .V Quinzio, "Causes for Cell Divergence in NiCd
and NiH 2 Batteries," Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Battery Conference
no Applications and Advances (Jan. 12-15, 1999, Long Beach, CA).
.6 L. H. Thaller, "Volume-Based Static Model for Nickel-Hydrogen Cells," Pro-
ceedings of the 32nd International Energy Conversion Engineering Confer-
ence, Vol.1 (Honolulu, HI, July 27-Aug. ,1 1997), pp. 192-197.
This review was made possible by the different sponsoring agencies granting
access to their cycling databases resident at the Navy cycling facility at Crane and
at other testing facilities. In addition to the cycling data, complete cells and compo-
nents from cycled cells were made available for our further study using specialized
electroanalytical procedures available within our laboratories. Occasionally, the
results of tests carried out at Crane following the completion of a cycling test were
also made available for our further study.
Organization of the Book
Data presented in this book generally reflect the order in which the phases of the
project developed and expanded. This project began as a simple review of life
cycle database information available in the open literature. Life cycle tests that
were carried out at 60% DOD were the first item of interest. As a consequence of
the widely scattered results, the study very quickly expanded to include cycling
tests carried out at other DODs. Inferences that were based on the analysis of the
cycling results were noted as they related to implications concerning ultimate
cycle life as impacted by cell design and cycling conditions. After several months,
the study was expanded to incorporate destructive physical analysis (DPA) studies
of components from cells that had completed their life cycle testing. This inte-
grated effort that blended cycling data and DPA studies very slowly began to bring
into focus the impact of cycling conditions on several factors involved in the cycle
life of different cell designs. With this increased understanding of the functioning
of the active material within a cycling nickel electrode, guidelines were developed
that addressed cell designs and cycling conditions that would support increased
cycle life at increased DODs. Besides the results of our DPA studies, techniques
that have been found to be useful in the design, storage, and management of
nickel-hydrogen cells and batteries are outlined for possible use by others. Studies
carried out by researchers in other laboratories were helpful in our fuller under-
standing of the many subtle factors involved in the cycling of nickel-hydrogen
cells, and they are included in the discussions and analyses. A brief overview of
generic nickel-hydrogen individual pressure vessel cell designs is included to
introduce the reader to some of the important aspects of this cell technology.
The chapters have been divided into different categories. Following an over-
view chapter covering the basics of nickel-hydrogen cell technology, the next
chapter covers cycling data that were available from life-testing database studies
sponsored by NASA and the Air Force. Chapter 3 describes posttest DPA efforts
xi
Preface
that were carried out on either complete cells or components of cells that had
come from life test cycling studies. Analytical techniques that were found to be
helpful in our studies are described in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 discusses the results
and inferences of the studies carried out as part of this overall effort. The final
chapter, Chapter 6, attempts to bring together the major findings as they relate to
two different topics. The first section addresses the goal of minimizing the rates of
the different capacity loss mechanisms during long-term cycling. The second
addresses the goal of maximizing the usability of these cells and batteries for dif-
ferent overall mission goals. The last section contains a few overall summary
statements and conclusions.
L. H. Thaller and A. H. Zimmerman
stnemgdelwonkcA
Several individuals and organizations have been helpful in providing information
used in the preparation of this report. The cycling data were made available from
the life tests sponsored by the U.S. Air Force and NASA. The tests themselves
were carried out at the Naval Surface Warfare Center located at Crane, Indiana.
Ralph James of the Air Force Research Laboratory in Albuquerque, New Mexico,
was instrumental in authorizing access to the day-to-day cycling data that were
collected and stored at the Navy testing facility. Thomas Miller of the NASA
Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio, provided access to the NASA-funded
cycling database information, which was also collected and stored at the Navy
facility. Harry Brown, Bruce Moore, Stephen Wharton, and Jerry Davis of the
staff at Crane facilitated the transfer of cells, cell components, and reports to The
Aerospace Corporation as they received authorization from the sponsoring
agency.
Results of destructive physical analysis studies were significant in determin-
ing the conclusions and recommendations presented in this report. Many of the
laboratory procedures and techniques used in the studies were developed by the
coauthor, Dr. Albert Zimmerman of The Aerospace Corporation, and were carded
out in the Aerospace laboratories by Gloria To and Michael Quinzio. A large num-
ber of the scanning electron microscopy specimens were examined by Dr. Margot
Wasz. Publications by other researchers interested in the workings of the nickel
electrode in nickel-hydrogen cells were helpful in developing our understanding
of this very complicated electrochemical system.
xi
negordyH-lekciN Life Cycle gnitseT
Review and Analysis
Lawrence H. Thaller and Albert H. Zimmerman
The Aerospace Press ° 1E Segundo, California
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. • Reston, Virginia
The Aerospace Press
2350 E. El Segundo Boulevard
1E Segundo, California 90245-4691
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, Virginia 20191-4344
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Thaller, Lawrence H.
Nickel-hydrogen life cycle testing: review and analysis / Lawrence H.
Thaller and Albert H. Zimmerman.
p. cm.
ISBN 1-884989-13-6
.1 Nickel-hydrogen batteries--Testing. I. Zimmerman, Albert H. II.
Title.
TK2945.N53.T47 2003
621.31'2424--dc21
2003009089
On the cover is a picture of a flight battery used on a satellite; picture courtesy of
EaglePicher Technologies LLC.
Copyright © 2003 by The Aerospace Corporation
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be repro-
duced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, or stored in a data-
base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publishers.
Data and information appearing in this book are for informational purposes only.
The publishers and the author are not responsible for any injury or damage result-
ing from use or reliance, nor do the publishers or the author warrant that use or
reliance will be free from privately owned rights.
The material in this book was reviewed by the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile
Systems Center and approved for public release.
Preface
The review and analysis reported here are the outcomes of a project carried out
from 1998 to 2001 within the Energy Technology Department of The Aerospace
Corporation to examine the available results of different nickel-hydrogen life test-
ing programs that had been or were being carried out for low Earth orbit (LEO)
applications. The cycling programs, some of which are still in progress, were con-
ducted under different sponsorships and carded out at different testing facilities.
These facilities were at Martin Marietta (now Lockheed Martin Astronautics) in
Denver, Colorado, the Naval Surface Weapons Center in Crane, Indiana, and the
NASA Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio. The sponsors of these cycling
programs include the U.S. Air Force, the design group at NASA Glenn Research
Center, and NASA's Space Station Program. As a subset of this review and analy-
sis, selected tests at 60% depth of discharge (DOD) were examined with greater
detail than other tests, since they relate to the possible use of properly designed
cells coupled with validated recharge protocols in future 60% DOD LEO mis-
sions. Increasing the DOD from 20% to 40%, or possibly to 60%, would represent
a significant increase in the usable energy density of nickel-hydrogen batteries
along with significant reductions in the power system weights to a point where the
projected weight advantage of lithium-based systems would be less attractive.
The original intent of this project was to critically review the results of the
cycling tests in light of the static and dynamic modeling capabilities within the
Energy Technology Department. As the cells or cell components from these
cycling programs became available, they were provided for posttest analytical
studies in our Aerospace laboratory. The results of the posttest studies helped to
form relationships between external voltage and pressure signatures available
from testing programs and the subsequent findings made available from these
studies. The ultimate goal of this project was to be able to suggest cell designs and
recharge schemes that would be compatible with extended cycling durations at
deeper DODs.
In addition to the department's modeling capabilities, the staff's in-depth
understanding of the fundamental aspects of the nickel electrode provided valu-
able insight for our analyses. When results became available, the information was
originally distributed to individuals who had an interest in reducing the weight of
power systems for future LEO applications. It was prepared as a newsletter
approximately once a month over a 3-year period. In this book, these newsletters
have been reviewed and updated in light of new developments and insights gained
during the multiyear study.
It appears from the review to date of the different segments of the cycling pro-
grams made available to us that the potential usable energy density of nickel-
hydrogen cells is being underestimated, and deeper DODs could be used, within
certain limitations, for missions where battery weights are critical. Posttest analy-
ses of failed cells carried out as part of this project show that abbreviated cycle
vii