NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS) 19930007673: Space migrations: Anthropology and the humanization of space

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by  NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

N93-1G862
Space Migrations: Anthropology and
the Humanization of Space*
Ben R. Finney
Abstract
Because of its broad evolutionary perspective and its focus on both technology
and culture, anthropology offers a unique view of why we are going into space
and what leaving Earth will mean for humanity. In addition, anthropology could
help in the humanization of space through (1) overcoming sociocultural barriers
to working and living in space, (2) designing societies appropriate for permanent
space settlement, (3) promoting understanding among differentiated branches of
humankind scattered through space, (4) deciphering the cultural systems of any
extraterrestrial civilizations contacted.
Space is being humanized. We are international relations and law,
learning to live and work in orbit; philosophy, political science,
the era of the actual settlement of psychology, sociology, and future
the Moon, Mars, and other portions studies, but not on anthropology
of our solar system seems almost (Cheston, Chafer, and Chafer
at hand; and talk of eventually 1984). That omission is perhaps
migrating to other star systems is understandable, because
growing. My task here is to anthropologists have typically
consider what role the discipline of focused on the long past of
anthropology might play in humanity rather than on its future
understanding and in facilitating this and, when they have studied living
process of humanizing space.1 peoples, they have usually worked
with small tribal or peasant groups
At first glance, anthropology might rather than with large industrial
not seem to have much to societies. Yet, despite this
contribute to such a highly seeming fascination with the
technical and futuristic enterprise archaic and the small-scale, the
as expanding into space. For perspective of anthropology applied
example, a recent NASA to space can help us comprehend
publication entitled Social Sciences the human implications of leaving
and Space Exploration includes Earth and can facilitate that
chapters on economics, history, process.
"This isarevisedversionofacopyrighted1987articlewiththissubtitleasitstitlewhich
appearedinActaAstronautica 15:189-194. Usedwithpermission.
1Aseparatepapercouldbedevotedtohowremotesensingfromspaceisbeingusedby
anthropologiststosearchforburiedorotherwiseobscuredarchaeologicalsites(see
"NASA..." 1985),to surveylandusepatternsof livingpeoples,andeventotrack
reconstructedvoyagingcanoesastheyarebeingsailedoverthe Pacificnavigatedby
Polynesiannon-instrumentmethods(Finneyetat. 1986).
164
An Anthropological Vision may be immensely more
complicated than anything
First, and most important, heretofore developed on Earth.
anthropology offers a perspective But, in voyaging into space and
on humankind that extends back attempting to live there, we are
some five million years to the doing what comes naturally to us
appearance of the first hominids, as an expansionary, technological
but it does not end with the species.
evolution of modern human beings
and the development of the current
high-technology society.
Anthropology can help us think
about where we are going as well Figure 1
as where we have been. From the
J
perspective of anthropology, we TheBeginnings of Technology
can view our species as an Throughthedevelopment oftechnology,
exploring, colonizing animal which our distant ancestors were able to spread
has learned to develop the outofEastAfrica over theentire globe
and to thriveinharsh environments for
technology to migrate to, and
which we, asbasically hairless, tropical
flourish in, environments for which
animals, arenot biologically adapted.
we are not biologically adapted Theinvention oftheshaped chopping
(Finney and Jones 1985). This tool some twomillion years ago wasa
process began when our distant major benchmark inthis process of
technological development. Byhitting
ancestors developed those first
onerock against another so asto chip off
tools for hunting and gathering (see aseries of flakes, onecan make acrude
fig. 1), and there is no end in sight. tool to use inmanytasks, such as sficing
Settling the Moon, Mars, or even meat,working hides, and shaping wood
and bone into new tools.
more distant bodies represents
an extension of our terrestrial Artist. Biruta Akerbergs
behavior, not a departure from it. Takenfrom JollyandPlog 1986,p. 275.
The technology of space travel, (front) Finishedtool (side) Reproduced withpermission of McGraw-
Hill,Inc.
artificial biospheres, and the like
165
Yet,settling in space will be a barriers to be overcome in the
revolutionary act, because leaving humanization of space.
Earth to colonize new worlds will
change humankind utterly and Coping with isolation from Earth,
irreversibly. Anthropologists focus family, and friends and with the
on technological revolutions and cramped confines of a space
their social consequences. The module or station has been enough
original technological revolution, of a challenge for carefully selected
that of tool-making, made us and highly trained spacefarers of
human. The agricultural revolution the U.S.S.R. and the U.S.A. As
led to the development of villages, those cosmonauts who have been
cities, and civilization. The "pushing the endurance envelope"
industrial revolution and more the farthest attest, staying longer
recent developments have fostered and longer in space provokes
the current global economy and severe psychological strain (Bluth
society. Now, this same 1981; Grigoriev, Kozerenko, and
anthropological perspective tells us Myasnikov 1985; Oberg 1985,
that the space revolution is p. 21). Now life in space is
inevitably leading humanity into an becoming even more complicated
entirely new and uncharted social as "guest cosmonauts" from many
realm. nations join Soviet and American
crews; as women join men; and as
physicians, physicists, engineers,
Cultural Analysis and other specialists routinely work
alongside traditional cosmonauts
Speculation about revolutionary and astronauts of the "right stuff"
developments is not, however, (see fig. 2). How will all these
immediately relevant to a most different kinds of people get along
pressing question about human in the space stations of the next
adaptation to space: How can decade and the lunar bases and
groups of people live and work martian outposts which are to
together without psychological follow? What measures can
impairment or the breakdown of be taken which would reduce
social order in the space stations, stress and make it easier for
lunar bases, and Mars expeditions heterogeneous groups of people
now being planned? Psychological to work efficiently and safely and
and social problems in space living to live together amicably for months
constitute, as both Soviet and or even years in these space
American space veterans attest habitats?
(Bluth 1981, Carr 1981), major
166
ORIGINAL: '"'___
BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPH
Figure 2
|
Space Shuttle Mission 51D, Crewed by
K.J. "Do" Bobko, Dave Griggs, Don
Williams, Charlie Walker, Rhea Seddon,
E. J. "Jake" Garn, and Jeff Hoffman
Space crews are becoming larger and
more heterogeneous. Where once space
was virtually the sole preserve of mifitary
test pilots from just two of Earth's nations,
now women, "guest cosmonauts" from a
wide range of countries, and physicians,
scientists, engineers, and other
specialists routinely join traditional
astronauts and cosmonauts in space
flight.
This trend can be seen in many of the
Space Shuttle crews. In this case,
Commander Karol J. "Bo" Bobko (Colonel,
USAF) and Pilot Don E. Williams (Captain,
USN) were joined in their flight, April 12-
19, 1985, by Mission Specialists S. David
Griggs (another test pilot, with an M.S. in
administration), Jeffrey A. Hoffman (Ph.D.,
astrophysics), and M. Rhea Seddon (M.D.)
and Payload Speciafists Charles D
Walker, representing McDonnell Douglas
Among social scientists it has who are intensely interested in Corporation, and E. J. "Jake" Garn,
been primarily the psychologists interpersonal relations and small representing the U.S. Senate.
(Helmreich 1983), with a few group behavior, it should not be In the coming era of international space
jurists, sociologists, and political surprising that anthropologists stations, and one day on lunar bases and
missions to Mars, a major chaflenge will
scientists joining in, who have might also be attracted to work in
be how to structure crew relations so that
tried to address these problems this field. Interestingly, some
men and women of many nations, cultures,
of space living. However, recent recruits come from and occupational specialties can live and
inasmuch as among the diverse maritime anthropology, where they work together synergistically in space.
lot of people who call themselves have worked on the dynamics of
anthropologists there are those small-boat fishing crews.
167
Figure 3 These and other anthropologists description, which might usefully
interested in space can bring to supplement the more clinical and
the field a degree of "hands-on" experimental approaches used by
American Station at the South Pole
experience in working with "real" psychologists and other social
This station provides one of the closest
small groups--be they fishing science researchers. Beyond this,
analogs we have on Earth to a rudimentary
base on another planet, in terms of both crews, Antarctic scientists (see moreover, anthropologists can
living conditions and dependence on fig. 3), or hunting and gathering bring a needed cultural perspective
supplies from outside. The station bands (see fig. 4). And they to this pioneering phase of space
consists of several buildings--
bring a tradition of nonintrusive living.
laboratories, service structures, and
ethnographic observation and
habitation modules-within a geodesic
dome approximately 100 meters in
diameter. The South Pole station is
continuously inhabited. Crewmembers
arrive and depart by air during the
summer, but during the long Antarctic
winter the dozen or so scientists and
support staff live completely isolated from
the rest of the world--almost as though
they actually were on the Moon.
While the occupants can venture outside
with protective clothing ("space suits")
during the winter, they are mostly
dependent on the shelter provided by the
geodesic dome and the buildings within
the dome, much as they would be at a
Moon or Mars base. Most of the suppfies
must be brought in by air, but some use
is made of local resources. Local ice is
used for water, and, of course, local
oxygen is used for breathing and as
an oxidizer for combustion, including
operation of internal combustion engines.
Photo: Michael E. Zolensky
ORIGINAL '-' :_,r
8LACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPh
168
Itisthroughtheconceptof such as NASA. One can now read
"culture"thatanthropologhyas
books extolling the "culture" of this
madeperhapsitsgreatest
or that successful corporation, and
contributiotnotheformal
I have heard NASA managers
understandinogfhumanlife. In
explain differences between the
thiscontext,anthropologismtsean
Johnson Space Center and other
by
culture those patterns of beliefs, NASA centers as being "cultural"
practices, and institutions shared in nature. Here I wish to suggest
by a particular ethnic population, a two specific areas in which this
profession, a religion, or another cultural perspective of anthropology
grouping. This concept has could be useful: (1) in addressing
diffused beyond the social sciences the problems of cross-cultural
and, in the United States, has relations among heterogeneous Figure 4
become a common tool for thinking space crews and societies and
about problems within our (2) in the application of cultural
Agta Men Burning Hair and Dirt From
multicultural society. It has even resources to develop models for the Skin of a Wild Pig
crossed the threshold into big space living.
Here, watched by helpers and children
business and government agencies in front of a residential lean-to at
Disabungan, Icabela, the Philippines, an
Agta man performs the first step _nthe
butchering of a wild pig. He burns the
hair and outer skin, which he will then
scrape off. After this, the hunter will Cut
the pig into shares to be distributed
among the band members, and
sometimes offered for sale to loggers,
farmers, and fishermen who have moved
into the area.
Before the invention of agriculture, all of
our ancestors rived by gathering wild plant
food, hunting wild animals, and fishing.
The Agta are representative of the few
hunter-gatherer groups still found in the
humid tropics of Southeast Asia, Central
Africa, and South America. The Agta five
in small bands of from 15 to 30 family
members along the coast and in the
mountains of eastern Luzon Island in the
Philippines. They hunt wild pig, deer, and
monkey, and they also fish, gather wild
plant foods, and plant smafl gardens of
root crops, rice, or maize.
Photo: P. Bion Griffin
169
GuestAstronauts and Cosmonauts Cross-Cultural Relations and reared in diverse terrestrial
Foreign Payload Specialists on the Space cultures, we cannot ignore cultural
Shuttle First, consider the issue of cross- differences and their potential for
UIfMerbold, WestGermany, Spacelab 1, cultural personal relations on generating problems during
November 28-December 8, 1983 international space missions. international missions.
Marc Garneau, Canada, Canadian Space is no longer an arena for
Experiment (CANEX),October 5-13, 1984 just two nations. More and more Cultural misunderstandings,
Patrick Baudry, France, Echocardiograph citizens from a growing number of stemming from a difference in
Experiment and Postural Experiment, and countries are joining their Soviet interpretation of a command or
Sultan SalmanAbdelazize AI-Saud,Saudi and American colleagues in space comment or from a clash in
Arabia, Arabsat-A, June 17-24, 1985
(see list). If this trend continues, it behavioral styles, might be deemed
Reinhard Furrer and Ernst Messerschmid,
would be easy to imagine a time trivial and passed over in a
WestGermany,and Wubbo Ockels, the
Netherlands, Spacelab 4,October 30- when crews aboard permanent terrestrial setting. But they could
November 6, 1985 space stations or the inhabitants of become greatly magnified on a
Rodolfo Neri Vela,Mexico, Morelos a lunar base would in effect form hazardous mission where people
Experiments, November 26-December 3, miniature multicultural societies. must put up with one another in
1985 cramped quarters (see fig. 5) for
It could be argued that the highly months, or perhaps even years, at
Cosmonauts From Outside the Soviet trained and motivated persons who a time. The Soviets, who have
Union* would participate in such future had the most experience with
Vladimir Remek,Czechoslovakia, 1978 missions would share a common international spacefaring, have
Miroslaw HermaszewsN, Poland, 1978 high-technology space culture that admitted to cultural difficulties--
Sigmund Jaehn,EastGermany, 1978 would submerge local cultural even though their guests may
GeorgiyIvanov,Bulgaria, 1979 differences and any problems that speak Russian and share a
Bertalan Farkas,Hungary, 1980 might arise from these. That might common ideology with their hosts.
Pham Tuan,North Vietnam, 1980 describe some future situation As Vladimir Remek, a guest
wherein crewmembers grow up in a cosmonaut from Czechoslovakia,
Arnaldo Tamayo,Cuba, 1980
common space culture and thereby puts it, unique cultural "mental
Jugderdemidyan Gurragcha, Mongofia,
1981 share common experiences, features" can "disrupt the harmony
expectations, and values. However, among crew members" (Bluth
DumitruPrunariu, Romania, 1981
as long as crewmembers are born 1981, p. 34).
Jean-Loup Chretien, France, 1982and
1988
Rakesh Sharma,India, 1984
Muhammed Faris,Syria, 1987
Aleksandr Aleksandrov, Bulgaria, 1988
Abdul Ahad Mohmand, Afghanistan, 1988
_'st compiled bV James E Obe,'_, space
researcher and author.
170
BLACK AND Wt4'_TE PH:OTOGR.AP_4
Figure 5
Cramped Quarters
Cosmonauts Valeriy N. Kubasov and
Aleksey A. Leonov are seen in the Soyuz
orbital module during the joint U.S.A.-
U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
docking in Earth orbit. This photograph
was taken by one of the three American
astronauts on the mission- Thomas P.
Stafford, crew commander; Donald K.
Slayton, docking module pilot; or Vance
D. Brand, command module pilot. The
American and Soviet spacecraft were
joined together in space for 47 hours,
July 17-19, 1975.
The 47-hour ASTP rendezvous was a
success both technologically and
culturally, but the cramped quarters of the
Soyuz spacecraft [the Apoflo spacecraft
was equally cramped (see the photo on
p. 12)] and the differences in national
styles demonstrate the potential for
cultural clashes on longer missions with
mixed crews.
171
One prerequisite for group environment, where facial
harmony is good interpersonal expressions are made even
communication. Basic to that more difficult to read because
communication is what the of the puffiness of the face
anthropological linguist Edward from fluid pooling in the head),
Hall calls the "silent language" and you have a recipe for
of facial expression, gesture, cultural misunderstanding.2
body posture, and interpersonal
spacing (Hall 1959). Members Cultural Resources
of the same culture tend not
to perceive how much is Cultural factors should not,
communicated nonverbally, however, be viewed solely in terms
because their shared ways of of impediments to successful space
gesturing and moving their bodies living, for they may also constitute
may be so culturally ingrained as valuable human resources to be
to be virtually unconscious. They tapped in adapting to space. In
can therefore be greatly taken addition to seeking to promote
aback when confronted with cultural harmony among
members of another culture who heterogeneous space crews, we
gesture or use their bodies might also seek out, from the
differently. Americans, for multitude of cultural traditions
example, commonly experience a among the Earth's societies, those
bewildering sense of discomfort practices and institutions which
when conversing with Middle could best promote harmonious
Easterners, who habitually stand and productive life in space.
closer to their conversational
partner than the American norm. As an example, consider
Conversely, Middle Easterners interpersonal problems in a space
may interpret Americans' greater habitat. J. Henry Glazer, an
conversational distance as a sign attorney who has pioneered the
of coldness or dislike. Take study of "astrolaw," warns against
conversational distance and all the exporting to space communities the
other elements of the "silent adversarial approach to dispute
language," mix well with an resolution based on "medieval
international crew in a crowded systems of courtroom combat"
space habitat (especially one (Glazer 1985, p. 16). In small
located in a microgravity space habitats, where people
2Foranotherperspectiveon cross-culturalrelationsinspace,seeTanner (1985).
172
cannotescapefromoneanother
distant future of large space
butmustworkoutwaysof settlements, we also examine
interactingpeacefullaynd
major contemporary societies in
productivelya,dversarial which harmony and cooperation is
proceedingwsouldirritatean stressed. The example of Japan,
alreadysensitivesocialfield.And with its low crime rate and relative
howcouldthewinnersandlosers
paucity of lawyers, comes to
ofbittercourtroombattlesliveand
mind--although its utility as a
workwitheachotherafterwards?
model for international efforts may
be limited in that Japan is such an
Oneobvioussuggestionisthat
ethnically homogeneous society
systemswhicharedesignedto (Krauss, Rohlen, and Steinhoff
detectinterpersonaplroblemsearly
1984; Vogel 1979).3
andheadthemoffthrough
mediationshouldbeconsideredfor
spaceliving.Glazerf,orexample,
New Cultures, New
callsforanewkindoflegal
Societies
specialist--noatnadversarial
advocateb,utsomeone
who Once we have learned how to live
settles disputes on behalf of the together amicably in space and to
interests of all spacefarers on a work safely and efficiently there,
mission. He draws his model from once we have developed ways of
the Tabula de Amalfa, the maritime avoiding the health problems of
code of the once powerful ionizing radiation, microgravity, and
Mediterranean naval power of other hazards of nonterrestrial
Amalfi. Their code provided for a environments, and once we have
"consul" who sailed aboard each learned how to grow food in space
merchant vessel with the power to and to produce air, water, and
adjudicate differences between other necessities there, then
master, crew, and others on board humankind can actually settle
(Glazer 1985, pp. 26-27; Twiss space, not just sojourn there. New
1876, p. 11). In addition to looking cultures and new societies will
to this and perhaps other maritime then evolve as people seek to
analogs, it is tempting to suggest adapt to a variety of space
that, with an eye to the more environments.
3SeeSchwartz(1985)foracomprehensiveanalysisoftheutilityofvariousinstitutional
responsestocolonizingopportunitiesmadebymigrantfarmersfromavarietyofworld
cultures.
173