Nanotechnology and Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Measurement Techniques PDF
Preview Nanotechnology and Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Measurement Techniques
W. R. Fahrner (Editor) Nanotechnology and Nanoelectronics Materials, Devices, Measurement Techniques W. R. Fahrner (Editor) Nanotechnology and Nanoelectronics Materials, Devices, Measurement Techniques With 218 Figures 4y Springer Prof. Dr. W. R. Fahrner University of Hagen Chair of Electronic Devices 58084 Hagen Germany Library of Congress Control Number: 2004109048 ISBN 3-540-22452-1 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution act under German Copyright Law. Springer is a part of Springer Science + Business Media GmbH springeronline.com © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2005 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Typesetting: Digital data supplied by editor Cover-Design: medionet AG, Berlin Printed on acid-free paper 62/3020 Rw 5 4 3 2 10 Preface Split a human hair thirty thousand times, and you have the equivalent of a nanometer. The aim of this work is to provide an introduction into nanotechnology for the sci- entifically interested. However, such an enterprise requires a balance between comprehensibility and scientific accuracy. In case of doubt, preference is given to the latter. Much more than in microtechnology – whose fundamentals we assume to be known – a certain range of engineering and natural sciences are interwoven in nanotechnology. For instance, newly developed tools from mechanical engineer- ing are essential in the production of nanoelectronic structures. Vice versa, me- chanical shifts in the nanometer range demand piezoelectric-operated actuators. Therefore, special attention is given to a comprehensive presentation of the matter. In our time, it is no longer sufficient to simply explain how an electronic device operates; the materials and procedures used for its production and the measuring instruments used for its characterization are equally important. The main chapters as well as several important sections in this book end in an evaluation of future prospects. Unfortunately, this way of separating coherent de- scription from reflection and speculation could not be strictly maintained. Some- times, the complete description of a device calls for discussion of its inherent po- tential; the hasty reader in search of the general perspective is therefore advised to study this work’s technical chapters as well. Most of the contributing authors are involved in the “Nanotechnology Coop- eration NRW” and would like to thank all of the members of the cooperation as well as those of the participating departments who helped with the preparation of this work. They are also grateful to Dr. H. Gabor, Dr. J. A. Weima, and Mrs. K. Meusinger for scientific contributions, fruitful discussions, technical assistance, and drawings. Furthermore, I am obliged to my son Andreas and my daughter Ste- fanie, whose help was essential in editing this book. Hagen, May 2004 W. R. Fahrner Contents Contributors...........................................................................................................XI Abbreviations.....................................................................................................XIII 1 Historical Development (W. R. FAHRNER)...........................................1 1.1 Miniaturization of Electrical and Electronic Devices.......................1 1.2 Moore’s Law and the SIA Roadmap.................................................2 2 Quantum Mechanical Aspects..........................................................5 2.1 General Considerations (W. R. FAHRNER)........................................5 2.2 Simulation of the Properties of Molecular Clusters (A. ULYASHIN)..................................................................................5 2.3 Formation of the Energy Gap (A. ULYASHIN)..................................7 2.4 Preliminary Considerations for Lithography (W. R. FAHRNER).......8 2.5 Confinement Effects (W. R. FAHRNER)..........................................12 2.5.1 Discreteness of Energy Levels..................................................13 2.5.2 Tunneling Currents...................................................................14 2.6 Evaluation and Future Prospects (W. R. FAHRNER)........................14 3 Nanodefects(W. R. FAHRNER)...............................................................17 3.1 Generation and Forms of Nanodefects in Crystals..........................17 3.2 Characterization of Nanodefects in Crystals...................................18 3.3 Applications of Nanodefects in Crystals.........................................28 3.3.1 Lifetime Adjustment.................................................................28 3.3.2 Formation of Thermal Donors..................................................30 3.3.3 Smart and Soft Cut....................................................................31 3.3.4 Light-emitting Diodes...............................................................34 3.4 Nuclear Track Nanodefects.............................................................35 3.4.1 Production of Nanodefects with Nuclear Tracks......................35 3.4.2 Applications of Nuclear Tracks for Nanodevices.....................36 3.5 Evaluation and Future Prospects.....................................................37 4 Nanolayers (W. R. FAHRNER)..................................................................39 4.1 Production of Nanolayers...............................................................39 4.1.1 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)............................................39 4.1.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)..........................................44 4.1.3 Epitaxy......................................................................................47 VIII Contents 4.1.4 Ion Implantation........................................................................52 4.1.5 Formation of Silicon Oxide......................................................59 4.2 Characterization of Nanolayers.......................................................63 4.2.1 Thickness, Surface Roughness.................................................63 4.2.2 Crystallinity..............................................................................76 4.2.3 Chemical Composition.............................................................82 4.2.4 Doping Properties.....................................................................86 4.2.5 Optical Properties.....................................................................97 4.3 Applications of Nanolayers...........................................................103 4.4 Evaluation and Future Prospects...................................................103 5 Nanoparticles (W. R. FAHRNER).............................................................107 5.1 Fabrication of Nanoparticles.........................................................107 5.1.1 Grinding with Iron Balls.........................................................107 5.1.2 Gas Condensation...................................................................107 5.1.3 Laser Ablation........................................................................107 5.1.4 Thermal and Ultrasonic Decomposition.................................108 5.1.5 Reduction Methods.................................................................109 5.1.6 Self-Assembly........................................................................109 5.1.7 Low-Pressure, Low-Temperature Plasma...............................109 5.1.8 Thermal High-Speed Spraying of Oxygen/Powder/Fuel........110 5.1.9 Atom Optics............................................................................111 5.1.10 Sol gels...................................................................................112 5.1.11 Precipitation of Quantum Dots...............................................113 5.1.12 Other Procedures....................................................................114 5.2 Characterization of Nanoparticles.................................................114 5.2.1 Optical Measurements............................................................114 5.2.2 Magnetic Measurements.........................................................115 5.2.3 Electrical Measurements.........................................................115 5.3 Applications of Nanoparticles.......................................................117 5.4 Evaluation and Future Prospects...................................................118 6 Selected Solid States with Nanocrystalline Structures.....121 6.1 Nanocrystalline Silicon (W. R. FAHRNER)....................................121 6.1.1 Production of Nanocrystalline Silicon....................................121 6.1.2 Characterization of Nanocrystalline Silicon...........................122 6.1.3 Applications of Nanocrystalline Silicon.................................126 6.1.4 Evaluation and Future Prospects.............................................126 6.2 Zeolites and Nanoclusters in Zeolite Host Lattices (R. JOB)........127 6.2.1 Description of Zeolites...........................................................127 6.2.2 Production and Characterization of Zeolites...........................128 6.2.3 Nanoclusters in Zeolite Host Lattices.....................................135 6.2.4 Applications of Zeolites and Nanoclusters in Zeolite Host Lattices...............................................................138 6.2.5 Evaluation and Future Prospects.............................................139 Contents IX 7 Nanostructuring..................................................................................143 7.1 Nanopolishing of Diamond (W. R. FAHRNER)..............................143 7.1.1 Procedures of Nanopolishing..................................................143 7.1.2 Characterization of the Nanopolishing...................................144 7.1.3 Applications, Evaluation, and Future Prospects.....................147 7.2 Etching of Nanostructures (U. HILLERINGMANN).........................150 7.2.1 State-of-the-Art.......................................................................150 7.2.2 Progressive Etching Techniques.............................................153 7.2.3 Evaluation and Future Prospects.............................................154 7.3 Lithography Procedures (U. HILLERINGMANN)............................154 7.3.1 State-of-the-Art.......................................................................155 7.3.2 Optical Lithography................................................................155 7.3.3 Perspectives for the Optical Lithography...............................161 7.3.4 Electron Beam Lithography....................................................164 7.3.5 Ion Beam Lithography............................................................168 7.3.6 X-Ray and Synchrotron Lithography......................................169 7.3.7 Evaluation and Future Prospects.............................................171 7.4 Focused Ion Beams (A. WIECK)...................................................172 7.4.1 Principle and Motivation........................................................172 7.4.2 Equipment...............................................................................173 7.4.3 Theory.....................................................................................180 7.4.4 Applications............................................................................181 7.4.5 Evaluation and Future Prospects.............................................188 7.5 Nanoimprinting (H. SCHEER)........................................................188 7.5.1 What is Nanoimprinting?........................................................188 7.5.2 Evaluation and Future Prospects.............................................194 7.6 Atomic Force Microscopy (W. R. FAHRNER)...............................195 7.6.1 Description of the Procedure and Results...............................195 7.6.2 Evaluation and Future Prospects.............................................195 7.7 Near-Field Optics (W. R. FAHRNER)............................................196 7.7.1 Description of the Method and Results...................................196 7.7.2 Evaluation and Future Prospects.............................................198 8 Extension of Conventional Devices by Nanotechniques..201 8.1 MOS Transistors (U. HILLERINGMANN, T. HORSTMANN)............201 8.1.1 Structure and Technology.......................................................201 8.1.2 Electrical Characteristics of Sub-100 nm MOS Transistors...204 8.1.3 Limitations of the Minimum Applicable Channel Length......207 8.1.4 Low-Temperature Behavior....................................................209 8.1.5 Evaluation and Future Prospects.............................................210 8.2 Bipolar Transistors (U. HILLERINGMANN)....................................211 8.2.1 Structure and Technology.......................................................211 8.2.2 Evaluation and Future Prospects.............................................212 X Contents 9 Innovative Electronic Devices Based on Nanostructures (H. C. NEITZERT)........................................................................................213 9.1 General Properties.........................................................................213 9.2 Resonant Tunneling Diode............................................................213 9.2.1 Operating Principle and Technology......................................213 9.2.2 Applications in High Frequency and Digital Electronic Circuits and Comparison with Competitive Devices..............216 9.3 Quantum Cascade Laser...............................................................219 9.3.1 Operating Principle and Structure...........................................219 9.3.2 Quantum Cascade Lasers in Sensing and Ultrafast Free Space Communication Applications.......................................224 9.4 Single Electron Transistor.............................................................225 9.4.1 Operating Principle.................................................................225 9.4.2 Technology.............................................................................227 9.4.3 Applications............................................................................229 9.5 Carbon Nanotube Devices............................................................232 9.5.1 Structure and Technology.......................................................232 9.5.2 Carbon Nanotube Transistors.................................................234 References...........................................................................................................239 Index....................................................................................................................261 Contributors Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Wolfgang R. Fahrner (Editor) University of Hagen Haldenerstr. 182, 58084 Hagen, Germany Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ulrich Hilleringmann University of Paderborn Warburger Str. 100, 33098 Paderborn, Germany Dr.-Ing. John T. Horstmann University of Dortmund Emil-Figge-Str. 68, 44227 Dortmund, Germany Dr. rer. nat. habil. Reinhart Job University of Hagen Haldenerstr. 182, 58084 Hagen, Germany Prof. Dr.-Ing. Heinz-Christoph Neitzert University of Salerno Via Ponte Don Melillo 1, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy Prof. Dr.-Ing. Hella-Christin Scheer University of Wuppertal Rainer-Gruenter-Str. 21, 42119 Wuppertal, Germany Dr. Alexander Ulyashin University of Hagen Haldenerstr. 182, 58084 Hagen, Germany Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Andreas Dirk Wieck University of Bochum Universitätsstr. 150, NB03/58, 44780 Bochum, Germany Abbreviations AES Auger electron spectroscopy AFM Atomic force microscope/microscopy ASIC Application-specific integrated circuit BSF Back surface field BZ Brillouin zone CARL Chemically amplified resist lithography CCD Charge-coupled device CMOS Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor CNT Carbon nanotube CVD Chemical vapor deposition CW Continuous wave Cz Czochralski DBQW Double-barrier quantum-well DFB Distributed feedback (QCL) DLTS Deep level transient spectroscopy DOF Depth of focus DRAM Dynamic random access memory DUV Deep ultraviolet EBIC Electron beam induced current ECL Emitter-coupled logic ECR Electron cyclotron resonance (CVD, plasma etching) EDP Ethylene diamine/pyrocatechol EEPROM Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory EL Electroluminescence ESR Electron spin resonance ESTOR Electrostatic data storage Et Ethyl EUV Extreme ultraviolet EUVL Extreme ultraviolet lithography EXAFS Extended x-ray absorption fine-structure studies FEA Field emitter cathode array FET Field effect transistor FIB Focused ion beam FP Fabry-Perot FTIR Fourier transform infrared FWHM Full width at half maximum
The list of books you might like
