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Mycoagroecology During the 20th century, agriculture underwent many unsustainable changes for the sake of greater food production. Today, the effects of climate change are becoming ever more apparent and the global population continues to grow, placing additional pressures on agricultural systems. For this reason, it is vital to turn international agriculture towards a sustainable future capable of provid- ing healthy, bountiful foods by using methods that preserve and reconstruct the balance of natural ecosystems. Fungi are an underappreciated, underutilized group of organisms with massive potential to aid in the production of healthy food and other products while also increasing the sustainability of agricultural systems. Mycoagroecology: Integrating Fungi into Agroecosystems lays the foundations for integrated fungal-agricultural understanding and management, the proposed practice of “mycoagroecology”. Suitable for students and professionals of multiple disciplines, this text includes nine introductory chapters that create a firm foundation in ecosystem functioning, evolution and population dynamics, fungal biology, principles of crop breeding and pest management, basic economics of agriculture, and the history of agricultural development during the 20th century. The latter half of the text is application- oriented, integrating the knowledge from the introductory chapters to help readers understand more deeply the various roles of fungi in natural and agricultural systems: PARTNERS: This text explores known benefits of wild plant-fungal mutualisms, and how to foster and maintain these relationships in a productive agricultural setting. PESTS AND PEST CONTROL AGENTS: This text acknowledges the historical and continuing role of agriculturally significant fungal pathogens, surveying modern chemical, biotechnological, and cultural methods of controlling them and other pests. However, this book also emphasizes the strong potential of beneficial fungi to biologically control fungal, insect, and other pests. PRODUCTS: This text covers not just isolated production of mushrooms on specialized farms but also the potential for co-cropping mushrooms in existing plant-based farms, making farm systems more self-sustaining while adding valuable and nutritious new products. An extensive chapter is also devoted to the many historical and forward-facing uses of fungi in food preservation and processing. Mycology Series Editor: Donald O. Natvig PUBLISHED TITLES 20. Handbook of Fungal Biotechnology, Second Edition Dilip K. Arora 21. Fungal Biotechnology in Agricultural, Food, and Environmental Applications Dilip K. Arora 22. Handbook of Industrial Mycology Zhiqiang An 23. The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem, Third Edition John Dighton, James F. White, and Peter Oudemans 24. Fungi: Experimental Methods in Biology Ramesh Maheshwari 25. Food Mycology: A Multifaceted Approach to Fungi and Food Jan Dijksterhuis and Robert A. Samson 26. The Aspergilli: Genomics, Medical Aspects, Biotechnology, and Research Methods Gustavo H. Goldman and Stephen A. Osmani 27. Defensive Mutualism in Microbial Symbiosis James F. White, Jr. and Mónica S. Torres 28. Fungi: Experimental Methods in Biology, Second Edition Ramesh Maheshwari 29. Fungal Cell Wall: Structure, Synthesis, and Assembly, Second Edition José Ruiz-Herrera 30. Polyamines in Fungi: Their Distribution, Metabolism, and Role in Cell Differentiation and Morphogenesis Laura Valdes-Santiago and José Ruiz-Herrera 31. Fungi in Ecosystem Processes, Second Edition John Dighton 32. The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem, Fourth Edition John Dighton and James F. White 33. Mycoagroecology: Integrating Fungi into Agroecosystems Elizabeth “Izzie” Gall and Noureddine Benkeblia For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.crcpress.com/Mycology/book- series/CRCMYCOLOGY Mycoagroecology Integrating Fungi into Agroecosystems Edited by Elizabeth “ Izzie” Gall Morel Dilemma Noureddine Benkeblia University of the West Indies First edition published 2023 by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 and by CRC Press 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC © 2023 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. 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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Gall, Elizabeth, editor. | Benkeblia, Noureddine, editor. Title: Mycoagroecology : integrating fungi into agroecosystems / Elizabeth Gall, Noureddine Benkeblia. Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references. | Summary: “Fungi serve as partners of plants that can bolster disease resistance and improve crop yields while reducing the need for artificial inputs; as pests that can cause significant diseases of major crops; and as valuable products with nutrient content and low input requirements. This new textbook on mycoagroecology introduces basic concepts of ecology, mycology, and systems of agriculture. It combines this information into an understanding of mycoagroecology, highlighting various roles of fungi in agriculture. This textbook is for students in plants sciences and agriculture departments and contains beautiful color illustrations throughout”—Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2022019507 (print) | LCCN 2022019508 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367335243 (hardback) | ISBN 9780429320415 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Fungi in agriculture. | Fungi as biological pest control agents. | Agricultural ecology. Classification: LCC SB733 .M93 2023 (print) | LCC SB733 (ebook) | DDC 632/.4—dc23/eng/20220829 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022019507 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022019508 ISBN: 9780367335243 ( hbk) ISBN: 9781032365701 ( pbk) ISBN: 9780429320415 ( ebk) DOI: 10.1201/9 780429320415 Typeset in Times by codeMantra Dedication I dedicate this book to every scholar who thinks learning has to be done in a classroom. It doesn’t. Elizabeth “ Izzie” Gall In memory of Sonia ( B) Kheitmi and Françoise Varoquaux Noureddine Benkeblia Contents Preface...............................................................................................................................................ix Acknowledgments from Elizabeth “ Izzie” Gall ...............................................................................xi Editors ............................................................................................................................................xiii Contributors .....................................................................................................................................xv Chapter 1 Nutrient Cycling and Trophic Lifestyles ......................................................................1 Elizabeth “ Izzie” Gall and Noureddine Benkeblia Chapter 2 Evolution and Symbiosis ............................................................................................21 Elizabeth “ Izzie” Gall Chapter 3 Population Dynamics .................................................................................................27 Elizabeth “Izzie” Gall Chapter 4 The Kingdom Fungi ...................................................................................................35 Steven Stephenson and Elizabeth “ Izzie” Gall Chapter 5 Limiting Factors in Agriculture .................................................................................51 Noureddine Benkeblia Chapter 6 Principles of Crop Breeding and Productivity ...........................................................69 Elizabeth “ Izzie” Gall Chapter 7 Pests and Pest Management Methods ........................................................................83 Juan F. Barrera Chapter 8 Economic Factors in Agriculture ...............................................................................95 Elizabeth “ Izzie” Gall and Barbara Weil Laff Chapter 9 The Green Revolution: Agricultural Shifts of the 20th Century .............................111 Elizabeth “I zzie” Gall Chapter 10 The Second Green Revolution and the Role of Mycoagroecology ..........................125 Elizabeth “ Izzie” Gall vii viii Contents Section i Partners Chapter 11 Plant-Fungal Mutualisms .........................................................................................135 Jason C. Slot Chapter 12 Incorporating Microbes into Agricultural Soils .......................................................145 Elizabeth “ Izzie” Gall Section ii Pests and Pest control Agents Chapter 13 Fungal Diseases in Agriculture: Significance, Management, and Control ..............161 Noureddine Benkeblia Chapter 14 Fungal Pathogens in Forested Ecosystems ...............................................................175 Denita Hadziabdic, Aaron Onufrak, and Romina Gazis Chapter 15 Fungal Interactions with Other Pests .......................................................................197 Guillermo E. Valero David and Jason C. Slot Section iii Products Chapter 16 Principles of Modern Fungal Cultivation .................................................................217 Elizabeth “ Izzie” Gall Chapter 17 Integrating Fungi into Existing Farms .....................................................................227 Elizabeth “ Izzie” Gall Chapter 18 Fungi in Food Processing .........................................................................................243 Noureddine Benkeblia Index ..............................................................................................................................................265 Preface Fungi are everywhere. They are degraders of wood and skin, flowers and hair, leaves and bones. Fungi live on our hands and in our lungs, on animal dung and on stone, on land and in the water. They kill and strengthen crops, curdle milk and ferment grapes into wine, cause famines and turn waste into edible protein. Fungi are inescapable, key members of Earth’s natural balance, and yet most of them are so small as to be invisible. Indeed, they are largely forgotten members of our world. Introductory biology courses at the high school and undergraduate levels typically cover bacterial, plant, and animal biology but only mention fungi in passing or omit them entirely. Further, many courses that do include the fungi focus on their role as pests either in animal medicine or in plant pathology. Many people with urban or suburban lifestyles do not know or remember that fungi even exist until a mushroom suddenly asserts itself in an apartment, in a refrigerator, or on a grassy lawn, and then it is not greeted with wonder, but with fear. Fungi, however, are vital members of natural ecosystems and their exclusion, whether accidental or purposeful, contributes to the unsustainability of the current industrial agricultural paradigm. To move agriculture toward a more sustainable future, it is vital to incorporate fungi when teaching agricultural or agroecological science and when managing agricultural systems. I had two major goals in creating this text: first, to help readers of various backgrounds recognize the importance and wonderful diversity of fungi and, second, to encourage readers to incorporate fungi into agricultural systems. This book outlines all the basic concepts needed for readers with only basic biological experience to understand the cyclic functioning of agroecosystems, the significance of genetic inheritance in plant and fungal variety selection, the role of fungi in agroecosystems, and the potential management practices that unite mycology and agroecology into integrated mycoagroecology. PREREQUISITES AND SCOPE This book is written for the undergraduate or graduate student of any subject who may have a high school level of biology background. The introductory chapters (1 –4) provide the information neces- sary to benefit from the remainder of the book. Familiarity with taxonomic systems ( mainly Kingdom, Phylum, Genus, and Species), the scientific naming convention (G enus species or Genus spp.), and basic cell biology will be helpful. This book is directed at adding fungi and mycological understanding to existing agricultural systems, so it does not include all the information required to start a business or farm ( mushroom-based or otherwise). To start an operation from scratch, readers may need additional plant biology, agricultural management, and business management courses or texts. ORGANIZATION The first half of the book lays out introductory concepts key to agricultural management. Chapters 1–3 cover nutrient cycling, evolutionary development, and population dynamics, the mechanics that govern all terrestrial ecosystems. C hapter 4 helps close the mycological gap in gen- eral biology education with a detailed introduction to the Kingdom Fungi: its diversity, modes of reproduction within major taxonomic groups, and the variety of niches filled by fungi. Chapters 5 and 6 introduce major limiting factors in agriculture, including the stresses that these limits place on plants and on agricultural production. C hapter 6 explores the three photosynthetic systems in land plants as an example of the evolutionary limitations to selective breeding, a concept which applies to all of Earth’s organisms. Chapters 7 and 8 begin the focus on agricultural management rather ix