Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization

817 Pages·1990·34.188 MB·English

by  George I. Zahalak (auth.), Jack M. Winters, Savio L-Y. Woo (eds.)

Multiple Muscle Systems
Jack M. Winters Savio L-¥". Woo
Editors
Multiple Muscle
Systems
Biomechanics and
Movement Organization
Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg
London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong
SavioL-Y. Woo
Jack M. Winters
College of Engineering and Applied Sciences Department of Surgery
Department of Chemical, Bio., and Materials Division of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation
Engineering University of California at San Diego
Arizona State University School of Medicine
Tempe, Arizona 85287-6006, USA La Jolla, California 92093
USA
Library of Congress CataIoging-in-Publication Data
Multiple muscle systems I biomechanics and movement organization I
Jack Wmters, Savio Woo, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
Includes index.
1. Biomechanics. I. Wmters, Jack, 1957- n. Woo, Savio L
-Yo
[DNLM: 1. Biomechanics. 2. Models, Biological. 3. Movement
-physiology. 4. Muscles-physiology. WE 103 M961]
QP303.M85 1990
612.7'6--dc20
DNLMIDLC
for Library of Congress 90-10128
CIP
Cover illustration © Idd Delp. One time North American rights only. Any further use of this image
without the expressed consent of Idd Delp is strictly prohibited. All other rights reserved.
Printed on acid-free paper
© 1990 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover lst edition 1990
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied on whole or in part without the written
permisison of the publisher (Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY
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software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the
former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the
Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.
Camera-ready copy provided by the editors.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
ISBN-13:978-1-4613-9032-9 e-ISBN-13:978-1-4613-9030-5
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-9030-5
Preface
The picture on the front cover of this book depicts a young man pulling a
fishnet, a task of practical relevance for many centuries. It is a complex task,
involving load transmission throughout the body, intricate balance, and eye
head-hand coordination. The quest toward understanding how we perform
such tasks with skill and grace, often in the presence of unpredictable pertur
bations, has a long history. However, despite a history of magnificent
sculptures and drawings of the human body which vividly depict muscle ac
tivity and interaction, until more recent times our state of knowledge of
human movement was rather primitive. During the past century this has
changed; we now have developed a considerable database regarding the com
position and basic properties of muscle and nerve tissue and the basic causal
relations between neural function and biomechanical movement. Over the
last few decades we have also seen an increased appreciation of the impor
tance of musculoskeletal biomechanics: the neuromotor system must control
movement within a world governed by mechanical laws. We have now col
lected quantitative data for a wealth of human movements. Our capacity to
understand the data we collect has been enhanced by our continually evolving
modeling capabilities and by the availability of computational power. What
have we learned? This book is designed to help synthesize our current
knowledge regarding the role of muscles in human movement.
The study of human movement is not a mature discipline. For instance,
within this book, respected leaders in the field find that understanding even
simple, stereotyped movements is quite challenging. Similarly, researchers
in robotics find that it is surprisingly difficult to get machines to move grace
fully or to interact intelligently with a variable external environment. Yet a
young child can perform a countless variety of tasks quite effortlessly. It is a
field that consistently humbles the researcher.
Fundamental to our difficulties in identifying neuromotor control
strategies is the inherent biomechanical complexity of the musculoskeletal
system. Because of mechanical coupling, motion of one segment affects
many others. The standing human can be considered as an interlinked in
verted pendulum that must operate within a gravitational field. Such systems
tend to be unstable. Thus, the neuromotor control system must not only plan
neurocontrol inputs that will cause appropriate volitional movements, but
must also assure that the overall system remains stable. It must contend with
(and perhaps take advantage of) the inherent complexity of muscle actuators;
dozens of muscles often contribute to even the simplest of movements.
Furthermore, each of these actuators has exquisitely nonlinear properties.
This book addresses this integration between biomechanics and neuromotor
organizational strategies in-depth, and as such provides a unique perspective
regarding our current state of knowledge.
In some ways the task of creating this book is analogous to planning and
executing a movement. We first had to define our task and its goals. We
then had to work out a strategy that could help us meet these criteria. Our
goals were: i) to provide contributions of high quality that span the entire
field of biomechanics/movement organization; ii) to serve both as a resource
book for students and as a source for presentation of state-of-the-art research;
vi Preface
iii) to synthesize, as much as possible, the interrelationships between con
tributions; and iv) to suggest directions for future research that are likely to be
fruitful.
Our strategy was manifold. First, we actively pursued leaders in the
field. In this regard, we were remarkably successful. This has been clearly
recognized by our contributors, and our impression has been that this situa
tion leads to each group "putting their best foot forward". As a state-of-the
art resource book, each author was asked to include a selected review within
their chapter (more than usually possible within refereed journal publica
tions), and to keep the "Methods" section short whenever possible by
referring to other publications. We also provide a number of chapters that are
of a more basic nature, suitable for instruction. For instance, one of us (IW.)
will use this as the primary resource book for a graduate course entitled
"Neuromuscular Control Systems"; Chapters 1,5,8-11,23 and 35 will serve
as a "core." To synthesize the many contributions presented here, we used
two approaches. First, each author had access to outlines for all other chap
ters and was asked to reference other chapters as much as possible. Second,
each part of the book starts with an overview chapter which attempts to syn
thesize information within that respective part of the book. Finally, we
specifically asked each contributor to suggest future research directions,
within either a separate section or a discussion section; these insights and
recommendations will perhaps extend the useful lifetime of this book.
The book is organized into five parts. The first two parts emphasize
modeling. Such models help document the state of current knowledge,
provide predictions that can often be tested experimentally, and allow estima
tion of information that is difficult or impossible to measure experimentally
(e.g., muscle forces). Part 1 addresses the properties of muscle, the biologi
cal actuator that allows voluntary movements to unfold. It turns out that
movement strategies are quite sensitive to the properties of this unique ac
tuator; thus a detailed consideration of muscle dynamic properties is a fitting
way to start this book. Our emphasis here is on concrete models of muscle
that are capable of representing salient muscle properties. We will constantly
face the inherent tension that exists between model complexity and
simplicity, and we will see that different contributors come to different solu
tions, based largely on their research goals. There is a natural progression
within these chapters from complex models (Chapters 1-4) toward somewhat
simpler models (Chapters 5-7). Chapters 1-4 challenge the backbone of
simpler muscle modeling approaches, such as the Hill-based and variable
spring models used throughout the rest of this book. Chapter 5 addresses
these concerns, suggesting that appropriately used simpler models are suffi
cient for most of the questions of interest within Parts III-V of this book.
Chapter 6 compares the predictions for various model formulations, while
Chapter 7 contrasts technological actuators with biological muscle. Part II
considers neuromusculoskeletal models. Chapter 8 overviews the founda
tions underlying musculoskeletal model development, Chapter 9 develops
important theoretical foundations for musculoskeletal systems analysis, and
Chapter 10 develops an approach for utilizing models in conjunction with ex
periments to gain insight into neuromechanical control systems.
The last three parts of this book emphasize the interplay between
biomechanics and movement organizational strategies, specifically address
ing the role of multiple muscles in this process. A wide variety of tasks are
Preface vii
considered, with the emphasis on movements in humans. Part III con
centrates on organizational strategies for upper limb movements. Such
movement tasks typically involve tracking or manipulation, with the upper
limb considered to be mounted on a base at the shoulder. Because of the
variety of upper limb movements that occur throughout life, upper limb
movements tends to serve as a testing ground for assessing principles of
movement organization. In contrast, Part IV considers what happens at the
other side of the shoulder, where issues such as postural stability and tissue
loading become dominant. Control of posture often involves the whole body,
from eye-head orientation to the maintenance of balance by effective action
of limb and torso musculature. Chapters 24-28 focus on tasks involving the
spinal musculature, while Chapters 29-33 emphasize whole body balance and
the relationship between intentional movement and posture. These are both
areas of tremendous complexity. They also represent areas of great impor
tance with regards to understanding organizational strategies for the wealth of
practical tasks of daily living. For tasks such as walking, it is often difficult
to separate movement and postural aspects (Chapters 32-33, 43-44).
However, for the repetitive, skilled cyclic and propulsive movements con
sidered in Part V, postural concerns tend not to be the issue. Here the focus
is on movement, and especially on the roles of lower limb muscles in such
movements. Unlike upper limb movements, in which an isolated limb can be
considered, coupling to the moving torso is typically quite important for
lower limb movements. Joint and muscle loads tend to be high, and
biomechanical issues related to inertial dynamic coupling, energy transfer,
the role of spring-like muscle properties, and the "stretch-shortening cycle"
tend to dominate. Most of the tasks under investigation are stereotyped and
often cyclical in nature.
The book ends with an appendix that provides tables summarizing mus
culotendon parameters utilized by various groups. This represents the most
complete resource for such information.
In conclusion, this book provides the fruits of a team effort by leaders in
this fascinating (and humbling) field of movement biomechanics and motor
control. Put together, it provides the reader with a wealth of insights and a
unique global perspective on multiple muscle systems. At the very least, the
book should give each of its readers a great appreciation for a task so simple
as grasping a fishnet.
Acknowledgments
This book grew out of a conversation in April of 1989 between the two
of us regarding the possibility of J.W. organizing a symposium for the First
World Congress of Biomechanics, held in La Jolla, CA, August 30-
September 4, 1990. The response within the community was greater than
anticipated, with our preliminary plan evolving into two symposia with over
80 presentations total, one on Multiple Muscle Systems and one on Multiple
Muscle Movement Organization, plus this book. Part of this enthusiastic
response was due to good timing - a resource book in this area was sorely
needed. It was also due to the combination of a major international meeting
and our plan for making the book available in time for the meeting. We
gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the World Congress organizers in
this endeavor.
Our most valuable resource has been the contributors. It was em
phasized early on that this project would involve a team effort. As an
analogy, we used the muscles of the body. In order to complete a task, many
muscles (contributors) must playa role. To be successful, muscles must be
strong, somewhat attentive to the goals of the overall task, and fatigue
resistant. Fortunately, these attributes held true for our contributors. We
especially thank them for their willingness to integrate their material so that it
fit within the context of the whole book.
Muscles cannot function without a support system. We thank the staff of
Springer-Verlag for their patience and enthusiasm. We also thank Jean
George for her help with editing, Lesley Rathburn for her help with layout of
the book, and Kathleen Winters for creating the index. Without their profes
sional and cheerful help during various stages of this project, completion in
time for the meeting would have been impossible.
Finally, we acknowledge Mother Nature for providing us with such a fas
cinating system to study.
Jack M. Winters
Tempe,AZ
Savio L-Y. Woo
La Jolla, CA
Contents
Preface v
xv
Contributors
Part I: Muscle Modeling
1. Modeling Muscle Mechanics (and Energetics) 1
GJ. Zahalak
2. The Charge-Transfer Model of Myofilamentary 24
Interaction: Prediction of Force Enhancement
and Related Myodynamic Phenomena
H.Hatze
3. Modeling of Lengthening Muscle: The Role of 46
Inter-Sarcomere Dynamics
D.Morgan
4. Architecture and Elastic Properties of the Series 57
Elastic Element of Muscle-Tendon Complex
G J.C. Ettema and P.A. Huijing
5. Hill-Based Muscle Models: A Systems Engineering 69
Perspective
1M. Winters
6. Input Identification Depends on Model Complexity 94
SL.Lehman
7. Actuator Properties and Movement Control: 101
Biological and Technological Models
B. Hanruiford and 1M. Winters
Part II: Modeling Neuromusculoskeletal Movement Systems
8. Modeling Musculoskeletal Movement Systems: 121
Joint and Body-Segment Dynamics, Musculotendinous
Actuation, and Neuromuscular Control
F. Zajac and 1M. Winters
9. Mechanical Impedance of Single-and Multi-Articular 149
Systems
N.Hogan
10. Linking Musculoskeletal Mechanics to Sensorimotor 165
Neurophysiology
G.E. Loeb and W.S. Levine
xii Contents
Part m: Principles Underlying Movement Organization:
Upper Limb
11. Principles Underlying Movement Organization: Upper Limb 182
N. Hogan andJM. Winters
12. The Origin of Electromyograms - Explanations Based 195
on the Equilibrium Point Hypothesis
A.G. Feldman, S. V. Adamovich, DJ. Ostry and J.R. Flanagan
13. Nonlinear Damping of Limb Motion 214
C.-H. Wu, J.C. Houk, K.-Y. Young and L.E. Miller
14. Principles Underlying Single-Joint Movement Strategies 236
G.L. Goulieb, DM. Corcos, G.C. Agarwal and M.L. Latash
15. Organizing Principles Underlying Motor Skill Acquisition 251
DM. Corcos, G.L. Gottlieb, S. Jaric, R.L. Cromwell and
G.C. Agarwal
16. Direction-Dependent Strategy for Control of Multi-Joint 268
Arm Movements
GM. Karst and Z. Hasan
17. The Organization of Human Arm Trajectory Control 282
T.Flosh
18. The Activation of Mono-and Bi-Articular Muscles in 302
Multi-Joint Movements
S. Gielen, G J. van Ingen Schenau, T. Tax and M. Theeuwen
19. Optimized Strategies for Scaling Goal-Directed Dynamic 312
Limb Movements
A.H. Seif-Naraghi and J M. Winters
20. Self-Organizing Neural Mechanisms Possibly Responsible 335
for Movement Coordination
JJ. Denier van der Gon, A.C.C. Coolen, CJ. Erkelens,
andHJJ.Jonker
21. External Control of Limb Movements Involving 343
Environmental Interactions
P .E. Crago, M A. Lemay and L. Liu
22. Model-Based, Multi-Muscle EMG Control of 360
Upper-Extremity Prostheses
S.G. Meek, J.E. Kbod, S.C Jacobsen
Part IV: Principles Underlying Movement Organization:
Spinal Loading and Postural Stability
23. Role of Muscle in Postural Tasks: Spinal Loading and 377
Postural Stability
G. BJ. Andersson and J M. Winters
Contents xiii
24. The Use of Musculoskeletal Models in the Diagnosis and 396
Treatment of Low Back Pain
Z.Ladin
25. Musculoskeletal Function of the Spine 410
S. Gracovets/cy
26. Postural Biomechanical Stability and Gross Muscle 438
Architecture in the Spine
J J. Crisco and M. Panjabi
27. Modeling of Muscle Action and Stability of the 451
Human Spine
M. Dietrich, K. Kedzior and T. Zagrajek
28. Neck Muscle Activity and 3-D Head Kinematics During 461
Quasi-Static and Dynamic Tmcking Movements
J M. Winters and J. Peles
29. Muscle Activation Patterns Coordinating Postuml 481
Stability From Head to Foot
EA. Keshner and J.H J. Allum
30. Segmental Movement as a Perturbation to Balance? 498
Facts and Concepts
S. Bouisset and M. Zattara
31. Simulation Experiments can Shed Light on the 507
Functional Aspects of Postural Adjustments Related
to Voluntary Movements
CF. Ramos and L.W. Stark
32. Simulation Studies of Musculo-Skeletal Dynamics in 518
Cycling and Sitting on a Chair
H.D. Ong, H. Hemami, and S. Simon
33. Control of Balance of Upper Body During Gait 534
D. Winter, GX. Ruder, C.D. MacKinnon
34. Individual Strategies of Muscle Recruitment in 542
Complex Natural Movements
A. Pedotti and P. Crenna
Part V: Principles Underlying Movement Organization:
Propulsive and Cyclic Movements with Lower-Limb
Emphasis
35. Overview: Influence of Muscle On Cyclic and Propulsive 550
Movements Involving the Lower Limb
M. Mungiole and J M. Winters
36. The Architecture of Leg Muscles 568
RMcN. Alexander and RF. Ker