Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis

730 Pages·2018·7.802 MB·English

by  Richard A. Schmidt, Timothy D. Lee, Carolee Winstein, Gabriele Wulf, Howard N. Zelaznik

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Motor Control and Learning
A Behavioral Emphasis
Sixth Edition
Richard A. Schmidt, PhD
University of California, Los Angeles, Professor Emeritus
Human Performance Research
Marina del Rey, California
Timothy D. Lee, PhD
McMaster University, Professor Emeritus
Carolee J. Winstein, PhD, PT
University of Southern California
Gabriele Wulf, PhD
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Howard N. Zelaznik, PhD
Purdue University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Schmidt, Richard A., 1941- author. | Lee, Timothy Donald, 1955-
author. | Winstein, Carolee J., author. | Wulf, Gabriele, author. |
Zelaznik, Howard N., 1952- author.
Title: Motor control and learning : a behavioral emphasis / Richard A.
Schmidt, Timothy D. Lee, Carolee J. Winstein, Gabriele Wulf, Howard N.
Zelaznik.
Description: Sixth edition. | Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics, [2019] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017048249 (print) | LCCN 2017049819 (ebook) | ISBN
9781492547761 (e-book) | ISBN 9781492547754 (print)
Subjects: | MESH: Motor Activity | Motor Skills | Learning
Classification: LCC BF295 (ebook) | LCC BF295 (print) | NLM WE 103 | DDC
152.3--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017048249
ISBN: 978-1-4925-4775-4 (print)
Copyright © 2019 by Richard A. Schmidt, Timothy D. Lee, Carolee J. Winstein, Gabriele Wulf, and Howard N. Zelaznik
Copyright © 2011, 2005, 1999 by Richard A. Schmidt and Timothy D. Lee
Copyright © 1988, 1982 by Richard A. Schmidt
All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.
The web addresses cited in this text were current as of October 2017, unless otherwise noted.
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E7030
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Dedication to Richard Allen Schmidt (1941-2015)
Courtesy of Ann Chamberlin
Richard Allen Schmidt, or "Dick," as he preferred, died on October 1, 2015. The day before his death Dick had
completed signing the last copies of his memoir (Schmidt, 2015a), which he was sending out to the friends,
colleagues, and acquaintances he had mentioned in his book. The book is a testament to a life lived to the fullest,
including triumphs and shortcomings, wins and losses. Originally he had intended the book to serve as a blueprint
for how to become a success in academia. What he didn’t seem to realize, however, was that not everyone possesses
the necessary skills and abilities to do what he did. In fact, very few do.
The four coauthors of this book collaborated to write a comprehensive memorial about Dick in the Journal of
Motor Behavior, the journal that Dick founded in 1969 and for which he served as sole editor until 1980 (Lee,
Wulf, Winstein, & Zelaznik, 2016). This memorial is available as an open access article, so we will not repeat
those comments here. Instead, we simply point the reader to search for the Schmidt references cited in the pages of
the book you are now reading to get a clear understanding of the important contributions that Dick made to the
study of motor control and learning. He was a giant in our field, and his influence remains throughout these
pages.
Comments from Tim Lee
The year 1982 was an important one for me. I completed my PhD at LSU, moved back to Canada to begin a job
as an assistant professor at McMaster University, and, at some point during the year, received my copy of the first
edition of Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis. As a newly minted PhD, seeing the “bigger picture”
role of motor learning and motor control and trying to relate that to 300 undergraduates in a second-year
kinesiology course was a daunting task. This book guided me through those early teaching years in immeasurable
ways. It provided a conceptual framework for teaching, led me to a wealth of information that I did not know
existed, and underscored the importance of this field of study for issues of practical and theoretical importance.
Quite simply, the first edition of this book was a landmark in not only the field of motor control and learning but
in the discipline of kinesiology in general. Dick had produced his magnum opus.
The second edition of the book was published in 1988 and, to my astonishment, it was even better than the first.
Some sections had been eliminated (e.g., theory building and hypothesis testing), but significant additions had
been made, especially to the chapters that interested me the most—the ones on motor learning. Around that time
I got to know Dick a little better. He invited me to Los Angeles for a few weeks to hang out in his lab with his
students, and I stayed with Dick and his wife, Gwen, at their home in Westwood. We remained in frequent
contact after that and, some years later, after Dick had left UCLA to work in the field of ergonomics, he called and
asked me something that changed my life forever: Would I join him as a coauthor of the third edition? The
decision to say yes was an easy one; the task of doing so was not. Living up to the standards of excellence that Dick
had established in terms of advancing the analysis of a field of study, and writing about it in a way that was both
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academically rigorous and pleasing to read, quite frankly, scared me. My overriding mantra was Don’t screw this
up. Fortunately for me, Dick was pleased with the results and we coauthored the third (1999), fourth (2005), and
fifth (2011) editions over the next dozen years.
Dick’s passing in 2015 represented a devastating loss, both personally and professionally. Although his health had
declined slowly over a few years, Dick remained on top of his research game and continued to contribute to his
profession in many ways. In particular, his analysis of why human error causes automobiles to suddenly accelerate
out of control attracted dismay from those who wished to see the machine accept the blame but praise from others
who understood the fallibility of actions. He was invited to contribute an op-ed piece to the New York Times
(Schmidt, March 10, 2010) and was interviewed by renowned author Malcolm Gladwell for an episode of his
Revisionist History podcast (the “Blame Game,” August 3, 2016). His views on driver error were cogently
summarized in a review article on two-foot driving (Schmidt, 2015b) that should influence how driving skills are
taught in years to come. Personally, I especially miss his sense of humor and incredible wit, something I wish
everyone who reads these words could have been fortunate enough to experience as often as I did.
The decision to contribute to a sixth edition of Motor Control and Learning was not an easy one. I had recently
retired when first contacted by the publishers and knew that I did not have the capacity to revise it again, alone.
Fortunately, I knew that Dick would have been overjoyed to have three of his former students join on as
coauthors, and I was happy beyond words when each agreed to my proposition. The result that you have before
you represents a collective thank-you to a mentor, teacher, and friend. But—as all four of us know so well—this
was, is, and always will be Dick’s book.
Comments from Howard Zelaznik
I first met Dick Schmidt in the spring of 1974 when I visited Ann Arbor as a college senior. After that visit I was
convinced that I wanted to study with him. In the fall of 1975 I became his PhD student at the University of
Southern California. I was familiar with many of the ideas and studies described in this text. When I became a
professor and the first edition of Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis was published, the book
became a staple of my first-year graduate course. At the time I dreamed that one day I might coauthor the
subsequent editions of the text to help keep the book current.
My dream did not materialize; Dick found and cultivated Tim Lee as his wonderful coauthor. Tim kept true to
the behavioral emphasis aspect of the text, modernized the material, and maintained the “Schmidt” voice of
subsequent editions.
Upon Dick’s death I confessed to Tim about one of my career dreams and thus was offered an opportunity to join
him, Carolee Winstein, and Gaby Wulf to revise the text for the sixth edition. I have tried to keep the behavioral
emphasis at the forefront of the book. Many levels of analyses can contribute to understanding motor control and
learning. Dick Schmidt took an experimental psychological approach (the behavioral emphasis). I have tried not
to deviate from that path too much.
Chapter 8 on coordination has been revised to give much more credence to the dynamical-systems perspective.
Although the tenor of the debate between information processing scientists and those of the dynamical-systems
perspective has subsided, the issues are still important and real. Dick was a vigorous opponent of the dynamical-
systems perspective. Nevertheless, we do provide the reader with a more balanced discussion of these issues. I
know that Dick would not endorse this approach, but I believe we owe it to our readers. Were Dick still around to
write this edition, he would be compelled to describe and explain this perspective objectively. I tried to do so
without any of the historical rancor.
Finally, this edition clearly has the Schmidt voice. It is our best way to honor one of the most influential scientists
of motor behavior in the past 50 years.
Comments from Gaby Wulf
Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis has accompanied me throughout my career. When the first
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edition was published in 1982, I had just started my doctoral studies in Germany (which I completed a few years
later with a dissertation on Schmidt’s schema theory). The textbook provided me with a solid foundation of motor
behavior research during this period of time.
It also served as the basis for the first motor learning class I taught in the United States in the late 1980s. Being a
nonnative English speaker teaching my first class in English, I memorized many passages from the book and
essentially recited them in my early lectures—much to the students’ dismay.
Since then, I have used all subsequent editions of the book for my graduate classes. Needless to say, I was thrilled
when Tim asked me to coauthor the current edition with him, Carolee, and Howie. Given Dick’s influence on the
field of motor control and learning, and on my own research, I felt incredibly honored to be able to contribute to
this excellent book.
I have attempted to update various chapters by integrating findings related to the influence of attentional focus
and motivational variables, such as learner autonomy and enhanced performance expectancies. These factors are
also key to a motor learning theory, the OPTIMAL theory, which Rebecca Lewthwaite and I published in 2016.
This textbook is the first to include this new perspective on motor learning.
Just a few days before his death, Rebecca and I visited Dick and his wife, Gwen. Much to our surprise, Dick
discussed recent studies with us. He also noted that there was no theory to account for motivational influences on
motor learning. We did not mention the theory that we had been working on for the past few years and that was
about to be published, but now it’s in Dick’s book.
Comments from Carolee Winstein
The year the first edition of Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis was published, I accidently
discovered it while roaming around in the UCLA Bookstore. Coincidentally, I had just met with Dick at his office
to plan my first semester as an incoming graduate student. I began work on my PhD in January of the following
year. I left behind a 10-year career as a successful physical therapist with an exclusive caseload in the area of
neurorehabilitation and at one of the top-ranked rehabilitation hospitals in Southern California.
In 1983, education programs for physical therapists were at the master’s level and were based on the traditional
medical model. I decided to go back to graduate school and pursue a PhD in kinesiology so that I could better
understand the science of motor control and learning that was missing from my basic physical therapy education. I
remember discussing this with Dick in the second year of my PhD studies when he asked me, “Why would a
physical therapist want to know anything about motor control and learning?” He said, “For me, the problem for
physical therapy was an organic one. . . . To use computer terminology, physical therapy seemed to be involved
with ‘hardware’ problems.” He went on to say, “Motor learning, on the other hand, has always been concerned
mainly with the acquisition of new skills with practice . . . To me, these issues are essentially ‘software’ problems,
analogous to understanding the programs that control the hardware’s activities, and they had little in common
with the hardware problems of physical therapy” (Schmidt, 1991).
After I earned my degree with Dick and completed a 2-year postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Wisconsin
at Madison, I took a faculty position at the University of Southern California (USC) in the Department of
Physical Therapy. (In the mid-1990s we changed the department name to Biokinesiology and Physical Therapy to
reflect both our academic (biokinesiology) and professional (physical therapy) education programs). In the same
year that I started at USC, I found myself on the program committee for the II STEP (Special Therapeutic
Exercise Program) conference, titled Contemporary Management of Motor Control Problems. It was sponsored
by the Foundation for Physical Therapy and the Sections on Neurology and Pediatrics of the American Physical
Therapy Association. I convinced the program committee to invite Dick; he was the only nonphysical therapist on
the program. He was given 2-1/2 hours to present his talk, titled Theoretical Issues in Motor Learning. His talk
and the papers that came out of II STEP had a tremendous, lasting impact on physical therapy education
programs. Dick and a handful of his contemporaries, including Anne Gentile and Ron Martenuik, were
instrumental in establishing a foundational link between the behavioral science of motor control and learning and
the practice of physical therapy.
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I teach a graduate-level course in biokinesiology at USC titled The Neurobehavioral Basis of Movement. I
adopted Motor Control and Learning as one of the required textbooks for that class, and I have done so since 1990.
In that class, I focus on the link between the science of motor control and learning and the translation of that
science to a number of fields concerned with motor skill learning, including athletics, rehabilitation, and the
performing arts. When Tim invited me to update four of the chapters for the sixth edition of the text, I wanted
first and foremost to preserve Dick’s voice; at the same time I wanted to show how recent advances in
neuroscience—the discovery that the brain is plastic and ever changing—are intimately coupled with all learning,
especially motor learning. I think Dick would have approved of the updates that I contributed to this edition.
Dick was a consummate scientist and educator. Like Alfred Hitchcock in his own films, Dick posed in brief
cameos in the fifth edition of Motor Control and Learning. In the style of Alf Brodal, the famous neuroanatomist
who suffered a stroke, Dick wrote the words that appear in the fifth edition sidebar: Neurological Disorders and
Problems in Movement Control. During the last few years of his life, Dick was dealing with a rare set of
neurological problems, yet he did not shy away from the challenge. A curious scientist, he was forever testing new
theories of motor control. I remember watching him during one of his therapy sessions with my colleague, Julie
Hershberg. He was testing the notion that if he attempted to pick up the cup with his more impaired arm after
practicing with his less impaired arm, it would be easier than if he simply practiced with his more impaired arm.
When his real-time empirical experiment did not support his theory, an elfish grin came over his face that
developed with each ensuing trial, until he finished his attempts and declared, “So much for that theory.”
Dick will forever be my mentor and a true inspiration for how to embrace life to its fullest.
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Contents
Dedication to Richard Allen Schmidt (1941-2015)
Preface
Accessing the Web Resource
Acknowledgments
Part I: Introduction to Motor Behavior
Chapter 1: Evolution of a Field of Study
Understanding Movement
Origins of the Field
Summary
Chapter 2: Methodology for Studying Motor Performance
Classification of Motor Skills
Basic Considerations in Measurement
Measuring Motor Behavior
Measuring and Evaluating Relationships
Reliability and Individual Differences
Summary
Chapter 3: Human Information Processing
Information-Processing Model
Three Stages of Information Processing
Anticipation
Signal-Detection Theory
Memory
Summary
Chapter 4: Attention and Performance
Types of Attention
Theories of Attention
Competition for Attention
Attention During Movement
Focus of Attention
Automaticity: The Constrained Action Hypothesis
Attention and Anxiety
Summary
Part II: Motor Control
Chapter 5: Sensory and Perceptual Contributions to Motor Control
Closed-Loop Control Systems
Vision
Audition
Proprioceptors
Proprioception and Motor Control
Feedforward Influences on Motor Control
Summary
Chapter 6: Central Contributions to Motor Control
Open-Loop Processes
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