Modern Physical Metallurgy and Materials Engineering

448 Pages·2004·8.43 MB·English

Modern Physical Metallurgy and Materials Engineering
About the authors been Vice President of the Institute of Materials and
President of the Federated European Materials Soci-
eties.Sinceretirementhehasbeenacademicconsultant
Professor R. E. Smallman for a number of institutionsboth in theUK and over-
seas.
After gaining his PhD in 1953, Professor Smallman
spentfiveyearsattheAtomicEnergyResearchEstab-
lishmentatHarwell,beforereturningtotheUniversity R. J. Bishop
of Birmingham where he became Professor of Physi-
After working in laboratories of the automobile,
calMetallurgyin1964andFeeneyProfessorandHead
forging, tube-drawing and razor blade industries
oftheDepartmentofPhysicalMetallurgyandScience (1944–59), Ray Bishop became a Principal Scientist
of Materials in 1969. He subsequently became Head of the British Coal Utilization Research Association
of the amalgamated Department of Metallurgy and (1959–68), studying superheater-tube corrosion and
Materials (1981), Dean of the Faculty of Science and mechanisms of ash deposition on behalf of boiler
Engineering, and the first Dean of the newly-created manufacturers and the Central Electricity Generating
Engineering Faculty in 1985. For five years he was Board. He specialized in combustor simulation of
Vice-Principal of the University(1987–92). conditions within pulverized-fuel-fired power station
He has held visiting professorship appointments at boilersandfluidized-bedcombustionsystems.Hethen
the University of Stanford, Berkeley, Pennsylvania became a Senior Lecturer in Materials Science at
(USA),NewSouthWales(Australia),HongKongand the Polytechnic (now University), Wolverhampton,
Cape Town and has received Honorary Doctorates acting at various times as leader of C&G, HNC, TEC
from the University of Novi Sad (Yugoslavia) and and CNAA honours Degree courses and supervising
the University of Wales. His research work has been doctoral researches. For seven years he was Open
recognizedbytheawardoftheSirGeorgeBeilbyGold University Tutor for materials science and processing
MedaloftheRoyalInstituteofChemistryandInstitute in the West Midlands. In 1986 he joined the
ofMetals(1969),theRosenhainMedaloftheInstitute School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of
of Metals for contributions to Physical Metallurgy Birminghamasapart-timeLecturerandwasinvolved
(1972) and the Platinum Medal, the premier medal of in administration of the Federation of European
the Instituteof Materials (1989). Materials Societies (FEMS). In 1995 and 1997 he
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society gave lecture courses in materials science at the Naval
(1986), a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineer- Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. Currently
ing(1990)andappointedaCommanderoftheBritish he is an Honorary Lecturer at the University of
Empire (CBE) in 1992.A former Council Member of Birmingham.
theScienceandEngineeringResearchCouncil,hehas
Modern Physical Metallurgy
and Materials Engineering
Science, process, applications
Sixth Edition
R. E. Smallman, CBE, DSc, FRS, FREng, FIM
R. J. Bishop, PhD, CEng, MIM
OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEWDELHI
Butterworth-Heinemann
LinacreHouse,JordanHill,OxfordOX28DP
225WildwoodAvenue,Woburn,MA01801-2041
AdivisionofReedEducationalandProfessionalPublishingLtd
Firstpublished1962
Secondedition1963
Reprinted1965,1968
Thirdedition1970
Reprinted1976(twice),1980,1983
Fourthedition1985
Reprinted1990,1992
Fifthedition1995
Sixthedition1999
ReedEducationalandProfessionalPublishingLtd1995,1999
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybe
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ISBN0750645644
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Contents
Preface xi 3 Structuralphases;theirformationand
transitions 42
3.1 Crystallization from themelt 42
1 Thestructureandbondingofatoms 1 3.1.1 Freezing of a pure metal 42
1.1 The realm of materials science 1 3.1.2 Plane-front and dendritic
1.2 The free atom 2 solidificationat a cooled
1.2.1 The four electron quantum surface 43
3.1.3 Forms of cast structure 44
numbers 2
1.2.2 Nomenclature for electronic 3.1.4 Gas porosity and segregation 45
states 3 3.1.5 Directional solidification 46
1.3 The Periodic Table 4 3.1.6 Production of metallic single crystals
1.4 Interatomic bonding in materials 7 for research 47
1.5 Bonding and energy levels 9 3.2 Principles and applicationsof phase
diagrams 48
3.2.1 The concept of a phase 48
2 Atomicarrangementsinmaterials 11 3.2.2 The Phase Rule 48
2.1 The concept of ordering 11 3.2.3 Stability of phases 49
2.2 Crystal lattices and structures 12 3.2.4 Two-phase equilibria 52
2.3 Crystal directions and planes 13 3.2.5 Three-phase equilibriaand
2.4 Stereographic projection 16 reactions 56
3.2.6 Intermediate phases 58
2.5 Selected crystal structures 18
3.2.7 Limitationsof phase diagrams 59
2.5.1 Pure metals 18
3.2.8 Some key phase diagrams 60
2.5.2 Diamond and graphite 21
3.2.9 Ternary phase diagrams 64
2.5.3 Coordination in ionic crystals 22
3.3 Principles of alloy theory 73
2.5.4 AB-type compounds 24
3.3.1 Primary substitutionalsolid
2.5.5 Silica 24
solutions 73
2.5.6 Alumina 26
3.3.2 Interstitial solidsolutions 76
2.5.7 Complex oxides 26
3.3.3 Types of intermediate phases 76
2.5.8 Silicates 27
3.3.4 Order-disorder phenomena 79
2.6 Inorganic glasses 30
3.4 The mechanism of phase changes 80
2.6.1 Network structures in glasses 30
3.4.1 Kineticconsiderations 80
2.6.2 Classification of constituent
3.4.2 Homogeneous nucleation 81
oxides 31
3.4.3 Heterogeneous nucleation 82
2.7 Polymeric structures 32
3.4.4 Nucleation in solids 82
2.7.1 Thermoplastics 32
2.7.2 Elastomers 35
2.7.3 Thermosets 36 4 Defectsinsolids 84
2.7.4 Crystallinityin polymers 38 4.1 Types of imperfection 84
vi Contents
4.2 Point defects 84 5.3.3 X-ray diffraction methods 135
4.2.1 Point defects in metals 84 5.3.4 Typical interpretativeprocedures for
4.2.2 Point defects in non-metallic diffraction patterns 138
crystals 86 5.4 Analytical electron microscopy 142
4.2.3 Irradiation of solids 87 5.4.1 Interaction of an electron beam with
4.2.4 Point defect concentration and a solid 142
annealing 89 5.4.2 The transmission electron
4.3 Line defects 90 microscope (TEM) 143
4.3.1 Concept of a dislocation 90 5.4.3 The scanning electron
microscope 144
4.3.2 Edge and screw dislocations 91
5.4.4 Theoretical aspects of TEM 146
4.3.3 The Burgers vector 91
5.4.5 Chemical microanalysis 150
4.3.4 Mechanisms of slip and climb 92
5.4.6 Electron energy loss spectroscopy
4.3.5 Strain energy associated with
(EELS) 152
dislocations 95
5.4.7 Auger electron spectroscopy
4.3.6 Dislocationsin ionicstructures 97
(AES) 154
4.4 Planar defects 97
5.5 Observation of defects 154
4.4.1 Grain boundaries 97
5.5.1 Etch pitting 154
4.4.2 Twin boundaries 98
5.5.2 Dislocationdecoration 155
4.4.3 Extended dislocationsand stacking
5.5.3 Dislocationstrain contrast in
faults in close-packed crystals 99
TEM 155
4.5 Volume defects 104
5.5.4 Contrast from crystals 157
4.5.1 Void formation and annealing 104
5.5.5 Imaging of dislocations 157
4.5.2 Irradiation and voiding 104
5.5.6 Imaging of stacking faults 158
4.5.3 Voiding and fracture 104
5.5.7 Applicationof dynamical
4.6 Defect behaviour in some real
theory 158
materials 105 5.5.8 Weak-beam microscopy 160
4.6.1 Dislocationvector diagrams and the
5.6 Specialized bombardment techniques 161
Thompson tetrahedron 105
5.6.1 Neutron diffraction 161
4.6.2 Dislocationsand stacking faults in
5.6.2 Synchrotron radiation studies 162
fcc structures 106
4.6.3 Dislocationsand stacking faults in 5.6.3 Secondary ion mass spectrometry
cph structures 108 (SIMS) 163
4.6.4 Dislocationsand stacking faults in 5.7 Thermal analysis 164
bcc structures 112 5.7.1 General capabilities of thermal
4.6.5 Dislocationsand stacking faults in analysis 164
ordered structures 113 5.7.2 Thermogravimetric analysis 164
4.6.6 Dislocationsand stacking faults in 5.7.3 Differential thermal analysis 165
ceramics 115 5.7.4 Differential scanning
4.6.7 Defects in crystalline calorimetry 165
polymers 116
4.6.8 Defects in glasses 117 6 Thephysicalpropertiesofmaterials 168
4.7 Stability of defects 117 6.1 Introduction 168
4.7.1 Dislocationloops 117 6.2 Density 168
4.7.2 Voids 119 6.3 Thermal properties 168
4.7.3 Nuclear irradiation effects 119 6.3.1 Thermal expansion 168
6.3.2 Specific heat capacity 170
5 Thecharacterizationofmaterials 125 6.3.3 The specific heat curve and
transformations 171
5.1 Tools of characterization 125
6.3.4 Free energy of transformation 171
5.2 Light microscopy 126
6.4 Diffusion 172
5.2.1 Basic principles 126
6.4.1 Diffusion laws 172
5.2.2 Selected microscopical
6.4.2 Mechanisms of diffusion 174
techniques 127
5.3 X-ray diffraction analysis 133 6.4.3 Factors affecting diffusion 175
5.3.1 Production and absorption of 6.5 Anelasticity and internal friction 176
X-rays 133 6.6 Ordering in alloys 177
5.3.2 Diffraction of X-rays by 6.6.1 Long-range and short-range
crystals 134 order 177
Contents vii
6.6.2 Detection of ordering 178 7.4.2 Variation of yield stress with
6.6.3 Influence of ordering upon temperature and strain rate 208
properties 179 7.4.3 Dislocationsource operation 209
6.7 Electrical properties 181 7.4.4 Discontinuousyielding 211
6.7.1 Electrical conductivity 181 7.4.5 Yield points and crystal
6.7.2 Semiconductors 183 structure 212
6.7.3 Superconductivity 185 7.4.6 Discontinuousyieldingin ordered
alloys 214
6.7.4 Oxidesuperconductors 187
7.4.7 Solute–dislocationinteraction 214
6.8 Magneticproperties 188
7.4.8 Dislocationlocking and
6.8.1 Magneticsusceptibility 188
temperature 216
6.8.2 Diamagnetism and
7.4.9 Inhomogeneity interaction 217
paramagnetism 189
7.4.10 Kinetics of strain-ageing 217
6.8.3 Ferromagnetism 189
7.4.11 Influence of grain boundaries on
6.8.4 Magneticalloys 191
plasticity 218
6.8.5 Anti-ferromagnetism and
7.4.12 Superplasticity 220
ferrimagnetism 192
7.5 Mechanical twinning 221
6.9 Dielectric materials 193
7.5.1 Crystallography of twinning 221
6.9.1 Polarization 193
7.5.2 Nucleation and growth of
6.9.2 Capacitors and insulators 193
twins 222
6.9.3 Piezoelectric materials 194
7.5.3 Effect of impurities on
6.9.4 Pyroelectric and ferroelectric
twinning 223
materials 194
7.5.4 Effectofprestrainontwinning 223
6.10 Optical properties 195
7.5.5 Dislocationmechanism of
6.10.1 Reflection, absorptionand
twinning 223
transmissioneffects 195
7.5.6 Twinning and fracture 224
6.10.2 Optical fibres 195
7.6 Strengthening and hardening
6.10.3 Lasers 195
mechanisms 224
6.10.4 Ceramic ‘windows’ 196 7.6.1 Point defect hardening 224
6.10.5 Electro-opticceramics 196 7.6.2 Work-hardening 226
7.6.3 Development of preferred
7 Mechanicalbehaviourofmaterials 197 orientation 232
7.1 Mechanical testingprocedures 197 7.7 Macroscopic plasticity 235
7.1.1 Introduction 197 7.7.1 Tresca and von Mises criteria 235
7.1.2 The tensiletest 197 7.7.2 Effective stress and strain 236
7.1.3 Indentation hardness testing 199 7.8 Annealing 237
7.1.4 Impact testing 199 7.8.1 General effects of annealing 237
7.1.5 Creep testing 199 7.8.2 Recovery 237
7.1.6 Fatigue testing 200 7.8.3 Recrystallization 239
7.1.7 Testing of ceramics 200 7.8.4 Grain growth 242
7.2 Elasticdeformation 201 7.8.5 Annealing twins 243
7.2.1 Elasticdeformation of metals 201 7.8.6 Recrystallization textures 245
7.2.2 Elasticdeformation of 7.9 Metalliccreep 245
ceramics 203 7.9.1 Transient and steady-state
7.3 Plastic deformation 203 creep 245
7.3.1 Slip and twinning 203 7.9.2 Grain boundary contributionto
creep 247
7.3.2 Resolved shear stress 203
7.9.3 Tertiary creep and fracture 249
7.3.3 Relation of slip to crystal
7.9.4 Creep-resistant alloy design 249
structure 204
7.3.4 Law of critical resolved shear 7.10 Deformation mechanism maps 251
stress 205 7.11 Metallicfatigue 252
7.3.5 Multipleslip 205 7.11.1 Nature of fatigue failure 252
7.3.6 Relation between work-hardening 7.11.2 Engineering aspects of fatigue 252
and slip 206 7.11.3 Structural changes accompanying
7.4 Dislocationbehaviour during plastic fatigue 254
deformation 207 7.11.4 Crack formation and fatigue
7.4.1 Dislocationmobility 207 failure 256
viii Contents
7.11.5 Fatigue at elevated 9.2.6 Mechanically alloyed (MA)
temperatures 258 steels 301
9.2.7 Designationof steels 302
9.3 Cast irons 303
8 Strengtheningandtoughening 259
9.4 Superalloys 305
8.1 Introduction 259
9.4.1 Basic alloying features 305
8.2 Strengthening of non-ferrous alloys by
9.4.2 Nickel-based superalloy
heat-treatment 259
development 306
8.2.1 Precipitation-hardeningof Al–Cu
9.4.3 Dispersion-hardened
alloys 259
superalloys 307
8.2.2 Precipitation-hardeningof Al–Ag
9.5 Titaniumalloys 308
alloys 263
8.2.3 Mechanisms of 9.5.1 Basic alloying and heat-treatment
precipitation-hardening 265 features 308
8.2.4 Vacancies and precipitation 268 9.5.2 Commercial titanium alloys 310
8.2.5 Duplex ageing 271 9.5.3 Processing of titaniumalloys 312
8.2.6 Particle-coarsening 272 9.6 Structural intermetallic compounds 312
8.2.7 Spinodal decomposition 273 9.6.1 General properties of intermetallic
compounds 312
8.3 Strengthening of steels by
9.6.2 Nickel aluminides 312
heat-treatment 274
8.3.1 Time–temperature–transformation 9.6.3 Titaniumaluminides 314
diagrams 274 9.6.4 Other intermetalliccompounds 315
8.3.2 Austenite–pearlite 9.7 Aluminium alloys 316
transformation 276 9.7.1 Designationof aluminium
8.3.3 Austenite–martensite alloys 316
transformation 278 9.7.2 Applicationsof aluminium
8.3.4 Austenite–bainite alloys 316
transformation 282 9.7.3 Aluminium-lithiumalloys 317
8.3.5 Tempering of martensite 282 9.7.4 Processing developments 317
8.3.6 Thermo-mechanical
treatments 283
10 Ceramicsandglasses 320
8.4 Fracture and toughness 284
10.1 Classification of ceramics 320
8.4.1 Griffith micro-crack criterion 284
10.2 General properties of ceramics 321
8.4.2 Fracture toughness 285
10.3 Production of ceramic powders 322
8.4.3 Cleavage and the ductile–brittle
10.4 Selected engineering ceramics 323
transition 288
10.4.1 Alumina 323
8.4.4 Factors affecting brittleness of
steels 289 10.4.2 From silicon nitrideto sialons 325
8.4.5 Hydrogen embrittlement of 10.4.3 Zirconia 330
steels 291 10.4.4 Glass-ceramics 331
8.4.6 Intergranular fracture 291 10.4.5 Silicon carbide 334
8.4.7 Ductilefailure 292 10.4.6 Carbon 337
8.4.8 Rupture 293 10.5 Aspects of glass technology 345
8.4.9 Voiding and fracture at elevated 10.5.1 Viscous deformation of glass 345
temperatures 293 10.5.2 Some special glasses 346
8.4.10 Fracture mechanism maps 294
10.5.3 Toughened and laminated
8.4.11 Crack growth under fatigue glasses 346
conditions 295 10.6 The time-dependency of strength in
ceramics and glasses 348
9 Modernalloydevelopments 297
9.1 Introduction 297 11 Plasticsandcomposites 351
9.2 Commercial steels 297 11.1 Utilizationof polymeric materials 351
9.2.1 Plain carbon steels 297 11.1.1 Introduction 351
9.2.2 Alloy steels 298 11.1.2 Mechanical aspects of T 351
g
9.2.3 Maraging steels 299 11.1.3 The role of additives 352
9.2.4 High-strengthlow-alloy (HSLA) 11.1.4 Some applicationsof important
steels 299 plastics 353
9.2.5 Dual-phase(DP) steels 300 11.1.5 Management of waste plastics 354
Contents ix
11.2 Behaviour of plastics during 13.7.2 Pacemakers 403
processing 355 13.7.3 Artificial arteries 403
11.2.1 Cold-drawing and crazing 355 13.8 Tissuerepair and growth 403
11.2.2 Processing methods for 13.9 Other surgical applications 404
thermoplastics 356
13.10 Ophthalmics 404
11.2.3 Production of thermosets 357
13.11 Drug delivery systems 405
11.2.4 Viscous aspects of melt
behaviour 358
14 Materialsforsports 406
11.2.5 Elasticaspects of melt
14.1 The revolution in sports products 406
behaviour 359
14.2 The tradition of using wood 406
11.2.6 Flow defects 360
14.3 Tennis rackets 407
11.3 Fibre-reinforced compositematerials 361
14.3.1 Frames for tennis rackets 407
11.3.1 Introductionto basic structural
principles 361 14.3.2 Strings for tennis rackets 408
11.3.2 Types of fibre-reinforced 14.4 Golf clubs 409
composite 366 14.4.1 Kineticaspects of a golf
stroke 409
12 Corrosionandsurface 14.4.2 Golf club shafts 410
engineering 376 14.4.3 Wood-typeclub heads 410
12.1 The engineering importance of 14.4.4 Iron-type club heads 411
surfaces 376
14.4.5 Putting heads 411
12.2 Metalliccorrosion 376
14.5 Archery bows and arrows 411
12.2.1 Oxidationat high temperatures 376
14.5.1 The longbow 411
12.2.2 Aqueous corrosion 382
14.5.2 Bow design 411
12.3 Surface engineering 387
14.5.3 Arrow design 412
12.3.1 The coating and modification of
14.6 Bicycles for sport 413
surfaces 387
14.6.1 Frame design 413
12.3.2 Surface coating by vapour
14.6.2 Joiningtechniques for metallic
deposition 388
frames 414
12.3.3 Surface coating by particle
14.6.3 Frame assembly using epoxy
bombardment 391
adhesives 414
12.3.4 Surface modification with
14.6.4 Composite frames 415
high-energy beams 391
14.6.5 Bicycle wheels 415
13 Biomaterials 394 14.7 Fencing foils 415
13.1 Introduction 394 14.8 Materials for snow sports 416
13.2 Requirements for biomaterials 394 14.8.1 General requirements 416
13.3 Dental materials 395 14.8.2 Snowboarding equipment 416
13.3.1 Cavity fillers 395 14.8.3 Skiing equipment 417
13.3.2 Bridges, crowns and dentures 396 14.9 Safety helmets 417
13.3.3 Dental implants 397 14.9.1 Function and form of safety
13.4 The structure of boneand bone helmets 417
fractures 397 14.9.2 Mechanical behaviourof
13.5 Replacement joints 398 foams 418
14.9.3 Mechanical testingof safety
13.5.1 Hip joints 398
helmets 418
13.5.2 Shoulder joints 399
13.5.3 Knee joints 399
Appendices 420
13.5.4 Fingerjointsandhandsurgery 399
1 SI units 420
13.6 Reconstructive surgery 400
2 Conversion factors, constants and physical
13.6.1 Plastic surgery 400
data 422
13.6.2 Maxillofacialsurgery 401
13.6.3 Ear implants 402 Figure references 424
13.7 Biomaterials for heart repair 402
13.7.1 Heart valves 402 Index 427
Preface
It is less than five years since the last edition of Overall,asinthepreviousedition,thebookaimsto
Modern Physical Metallurgy was enlarged to include presentthescienceofmaterialsinarelativelyconcise
the related subject of Materials Science and Engi- form and to lead naturally into an explanation of the
neering, appearing under the title Metals and Mate- ways in which various important materials are pro-
rials: Science, Processes, Applications. In its revised cessedandapplied.Wehavesoughttoprovideauseful
approach, it covered a wider range of metals and surveyofkeymaterialsandtheirinterrelations,empha-
alloys and included ceramics and glasses, polymers sizing,whereverpossible,theunderlyingscientificand
and composites, modern alloys and surface engineer- engineering principles. Throughout we have indicated
ing.Eachoftheseadditionalsubjectareaswastreated the manner in which powerful tools of characteriza-
on an individual basis as well as against unifying tion, such as optical and electron microscopy, X-ray
background theories of structure, kinetics and phase diffraction,etc.areusedtoelucidatethevitalrelations
transformations, defects and materials characteriza- between the structure of a material and its mechani-
tion. cal,physicaland/orchemicalproperties.Controlofthe
In the relatively short period of time since that microstructure/propertyrelationrecursasavitaltheme
previous edition, there have been notable advances during the actual processing of metals, ceramics and
in the materials science and engineering of biomat- polymers;productionproceduresforostensiblydissim-
erials and sports equipment. Two new chapters have ilar materials frequently share common principles.
now been devoted to these topics. The subject of We have continued to try and make the subject
biomaterials concerns the science and application of area accessible to a wide range of readers. Sufficient
materials that must function effectively and reliably background and theory is provided to assist students
whilst in contact with living tissue; these vital mat- in answering questions over a large part of a typical
erialsfeatureincreasinglyinmodernsurgery,medicine Degree course in materials science and engineering.
and dentistry. Materials developed for sports equip- Somesectionsprovideabackgroundorpointofentry
ment must take into account the demands peculiar forresearchstudiesatpostgraduatelevel.Forthemore
to each sport. In the process of writing these addi- general reader, the book should serve as a useful
tional chapters, we became increasingly conscious introduction or occasional reference on the myriad
that engineering aspects of the book were coming ways in which materials are utilized. We hope that
more and more into prominence. A new form of we have succeeded in conveying the excitement of
title was deemed appropriate. Finally, we decided the atmosphere in which a life-altering range of new
to combine the phrase ‘physical metallurgy’, which materials is being conceived and developed.
expresses a sense of continuity with earlier edi-
tions, directly with ‘materials engineering’ in the R. E. Smallman
book’s title. R. J. Bishop