Modeling and Simulation of Lead- Acid Storage Batteries within

212 Pages·2012·1.94 MB·English

An-Najah National University
Faculty of Graduate Studies

Modeling and Simulation of Lead-
Acid Storage Batteries within
Photovoltaic Power Systems

By
Ola Subhi Waheed Al-Qasem

Supervisor
Prof. Marwan Mahmoud

This thesis is submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Master in Clean Energy and Energy
Conservation Strategy Engineering, Faculty of Graduate Studies,
at An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine
2012

iii
Dedication
I would like to dedicate my thesis work to
My father, mother, brothers and sisters……
All friends and colleagues…
Everyone who works in this field……
iv
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank my family for constant love and
support that have always given me.
Thanks go also to all my friends and fellow graduate
Students.
My thanks and appreciations go to the staff of Clean Energy
and Conservation Strategy Engineering Master Program at An-
Najah National University
Finally, and most importantly, my furthermost appreciation
goes to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Marwan Mahmoud for his
exceptional guidance and insightful comments and observations
throughout the duration of this project.
Ola
v
ﺭﺍﺭﻗﻹﺍ
:ﻥﺍﻭﻨﻌﻟﺍ لﻤﺤﺘ ﻲﺘﻟﺍ ﺔﻟﺎﺴﺭﻟﺍ ﺔﻤﺩﻘﻤ ،ﻩﺎﻨﺩﺃ ﺔﻌﻗﻭﻤﻟﺍ ﺎﻨﺃ
Modeling and Simulation of Lead-
Acid Storage Batteries within
Photovoltaic Power Systems

ﺔﻴﺴﻤﺸﻟﺍ ﺎﻴﻼﺨﻟﺍ ﺔﻤﻅﻨﺃ ﻥﻤﻀ ﺽﻤﺎﺤﻟﺍ – ﺹﺎﺼﺭﻟﺍ ﺕﺎﻴﺭﺎﻁﺒ ﺓﺎﻜﺎﺤﻤﻭ ﺔﺠﺫﻤﻨ

ﺕـﻤﺘ ﺎـﻤ ﺀﺎﻨﺜﺘﺴﺎﺒ ،ﺹﺎﺨﻟﺍ ﻱﺩﻬﺠ ﺝﺎﺘﻨ ﻭﻫ ﺎﻤﻨﺇ ﺔﻟﺎﺴﺭﻟﺍ ﻩﺫﻫ ﻪﻴﻠﻋ ﺕﻠﻤﺘﺸﺍ ﺎﻤ ﻥﺄﺒ ﺭﻗﺃ
ﺔﺠﺭﺩ ﻱﺃ لﻴﻨﻟ لﺒﻗ ﻥﻤ ﻡﺩﻘﻴُ ﻡﻟ ﺎﻬﻨﻤ ﺀﺯﺠ ﻱﺃ ﻭﺃ ،ﺔﻠﻤﺎﻜ ﺔﻟﺎﺴﺭﻟﺍ ﻩﺫﻫ ﻥﺃﻭ ،ﺩﺭﻭ ﺎﻤﺜﻴﺤ ﻪﻴﻟﺇ ﺓﺭﺎﺸﻹﺍ
.ﻯﺭﺨﺃ ﺔﻴﺜﺤﺒ ﻭﺃ ﺔﻴﻤﻴﻠﻌﺘ ﺔﺴﺴﺅﻤ ﻱﺃ ﻯﺩﻟ ﻲﺜﺤﺒ ﻭﺃ ﻲﻤﻠﻋ ﺏﻘﻟ ﻭﺃ
Declaration
The work provided in this thesis, unless otherwise referenced, is the
researcher's own work, and has not been submitted elsewhere for any other
degree or qualification.

Student's Name:
:ﺔﺒﻟﺎﻁﻟﺍ ﻡﺴﺍ
Signature:
:ﻊﻴﻗﻭﺘﻟﺍ
Date:
:ﺦﻴﺭﺎﺘﻟﺍ
vi
List of Abbreviations
Ah Ampere hour
Wh Watt hour
C Capacity
AhC Ampere hour capacity
WhC Watt hour capacity
SOC State of charge
DOD Depth of discharge
V Open circuit voltage
OC
Ampere hour efficiency

Watt hour efficiency

SLI Starting, Lighting and Ignition
VRLA Valve - Regulation Lead Acid
vii
Table of Contents
No. Contents Page
Dedication iii
Acknowledgment iv
Declaration v
List of Abbreviations vi
Table of Contents vii
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi
Abstract xvi
Chapter One: Introduction and Literature Review 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Literature Review 3
Chapter Two: Rechargeable battery 21
2.1 Rechargeable Battery Cells 22
2.2 Battery History 22
2.2.1 Early works 23
2.2.2 Development of Lead Acid batteries 24
2.2.3 Development of Nickel–Cadmium 26
2.2.4 Recent developments 27
2.3 Types and Characteristics of Secondary Batteries 28
2.3.1 Lead-Acid batteries 29
2.3.2 Alkaline secondary batteries 31
Why we Need Batteries Getting Unplugged: Portable
2.4 35
Energy and Long-Term Energy Storage
2.5 The Many Uses of Batteries 36
2.6 Battery Performance 39
2.6.1 Potential or voltage 39
2.6.2 Current 40
2.6.3 Resistance 40
2.6.4 Capacity 41
2.6.5 Power 42
2.6.6 Energy 42
2.7 General Battery Concepts 43
2.7.1 Batteries cells 43
2.7.2 Cell and battery voltage 44
2.7.3 Cell and battery capacity 44
2.7.4 Connecting cells to form a battery: series or parallel 45
2.7.5 Cell components 46
2.8 Voltage and Discharge Profiles 49
2.9 Effect of Discharge Rate on Performance 51
viii
No. Contents Page
2.10 Effect of Temperature 52
2.11 Charge Retention (Self-Discharge) 53
2.12 Life 54
2.13 Charge Characteristics 56
2.14 Cost 58
General Information for Selection of Batteries for
2.15 59
Photovoltaic Systems
2.16 Key Elements in Battery Selection 60
Chapter Three: Lead Acid Battery 65
3.1 General Characteristics of Electrolyte Lead Acid Battery 66
3.2 Lead Acid Chemistry 68
3.3 Open-Circuit Voltage Characteristics 71
3.4 Self-Discharge 73
3.5 Discharge Characteristics 74
3.5.1 Discharge types 74
3.5.1.1 High-rate discharges 75
3.5.1.2 Medium-rate discharges 75
3.5.1.3 Low-rate discharges 75
3.6 Measures of Discharge Performance 76
3.7 Battery Voltage – General Overview 77
3.7.1 Mid-point Voltage 78
3.7.2 Battery discharge voltage as a function of discharge rate 79
3.8 Charging and Charging Equipment 80
3.8.1 General considerations 80
3.8.2 Methods of charging lead-acid batteries 82
3.8.2.1 Constant-current charging 83
3.8.2.2 Constant-potential charging 85
3.8.2.3 Taper charging 87
3.8.2.4 Pulse charging 88
3.8.2.5 Trickle charging 90
3.8.2.6 Float charging 90
3.8.2.7 Rapid charging 90
3.9 Maximum Battery Subsystem Voltage 91
3.10 Selection of Charge Current 92
Effect of Specific Gravity of Electrolyte and Operating
3.11 93
Temperature
3.12 Watering Cells 94
3.13 Maintenance Safety and Operational Features 95
Chapter Four: Nickel – Cadmium Batteries 100
4.1 Chemistry 102
ix
No. Contents Page
4.2 Performance Characteristics 105
4.2.1 Discharge properties 105
4.2.2 Internal resistance 108
4.2.3 Charge retention 109
4.2.4 Life 110
4.3.1 Charging characteristics 110
4.3.2 Charging efficiency 111
4.3.3 Overcharge 113
4.4 Iron Electrode Batteries 114
4.4.1 Chemistry of Nickel – Iron batteries 116
4.4.2 Performance characteristics of Nickel-Iron battery 118
4.4.3 Discharge characteristics 120
4.4.4 Self-discharge 121
4.4.5 Internal resistance 121
4.4.6 Life 122
4.4.7 Charging 122
Chapter Five: Lead Acid Battery Characteristics 125
5.1 The Discharge Process under 8.4A Current Load 126
5.1.1 Voltage, specific gravity and state of charge 132
5.1.2 The battery internal resistance 135
5.1.3 Storage capacity and efficiency 136
5.1.4 Depth of discharge (DOD) 140
5.1.5 Battery completed discharged under 8.4A current load 143
5.2 Battery Charging Process 145
Developing an Algorithm for Determining the Battery –
5.3 154
Ah Capacity
5.4 Conclusion 158
5.5 Vents and Valves 159
5.6 Recombination Device 159
Chapter Six: Lead Acid Battery Equivalent Circuit
161
Model
6.1 Introduction 162
6.2 Battery Model 162
6.2.1 Battery model structure 163
6.3 Battery Simulink 182
Chapter Seven: Conclusions and Recommendations 187
7.1 Conclusions 188
7.2 Recommendations 189
References 190
ب
ﺹﺨﻠﻤﻟﺍ
x
List of Tables
No. Table Page
Major characteristics and applications of
Table (2.1) 38
secondary batteries
Table (2.1) Cell voltage for different battery types 44
Major advantages and disadvantages of lead-acid
Table (3.1) 67
batteries
Table (3.2) Types and characteristics of lead-acid batteries 68
Table (3.3) Over view of lead acid battery attributes 71
Major advantages and disadvantages of industrial
Table (4.1) 102
and aerospace nickel- cadmium batteries
Table (4.2) Overview of nickel-cadmium cell attributes 105
Table (4.3) Iron electrode battery systems 115
Table (4.4) System characteristics 116
(12V/60Ah) lead acid battery behavior under
Table (5.1) 128
(8.4A) discharge current
(12V/60Ah) lead acid battery behavior under
Table (5.2) 129
(6.2A) discharge current
(12V/60Ah) lead acid battery behavior under
Table (5.3) 130
(4.25A) discharge current
(12V/60Ah) lead acid battery behavior under
Table (5.4) 131
(2.2A) discharge current
(12V/60Ah) lead acid battery completed
Table (5.5) 144
discharged behavior under (8.4A) current
(12V/60Ah) lead acid battery behavior during
Table (5.6) 147
constant voltage charged process
Table (5.7) Variables value needed to solve the equations 155
Measured and calculated parameters of a lead acid
Table (5.8) battery rated at 12V / 60 Ah at 2.2A load current 156
discharged
Measured and calculated parameters of a lead acid
Table (5.9) battery rated at 12V / 60 Ah at 4.25A load current 157
discharged
Measured and calculated parameters of a lead acid
Table (5.10) battery rated at 12V / 60 Ah at 6.2A load current 157
discharged
Measured and calculated parameters of a lead acid
Table (5.11) battery rated at 12V / 60 Ah at 8.4A load current 158
discharged