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Mobility-based Time References for Wireless Sensor Networks ANALOG CIRCUITS AND SIGNAL PROCESSING Series Editors: Mohammed Ismail, The Ohio State University ´ Mohamad Sawan, Ecole Polytechnique de Montre´al For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/7381 Fabio Sebastiano • Lucien J. Breems Kofi A.A. Makinwa Mobility-based Time References for Wireless Sensor Networks 123 Fabio Sebastiano Lucien J. Breems NXP Semiconductors NXP Semiconductors High Tech Campus 32 High Tech Campus 32 Eindhoven Eindhoven Netherlands Netherlands Kofi A.A. Makinwa Delft University of Technology Mekelweg 4 Delft Netherlands ISBN 978-1-4614-3482-5 ISBN 978-1-4614-3483-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3483-2 Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2012938039 © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface Measuring time is an ancient problem. Along history, man has developed more and more advanced timekeeping devices to keep up with his growing needs: mechanical clocks to increase accuracy; quartz watches to cut down on size and cost; atomic clocks to reach higher accuracy. Today, each node in a wireless sensor network (WSN) needs a time reference with even novel requirements: it must be cheap, of ultralow power, and fully integrated on a silicon die, thus not employing any off-chip component. This book approaches the challenge of designing such reference in a systematic way. First, the reader is guided through the architectural choices and the trade-offs in the design of a wireless sensor node in order to understand the application of the time reference and its specifications. Based on that and on the review of several alternatives, mobility-based references are chosen as the preferred candidates. In the following parts of the book, they are thoroughly dissected by illustrating concepts, circuit design, temperature compensation schemes, and experimental validations, so that their potentiality as time references for WSN can be finally assessed. The research presented in this book has been completed during my Ph.D. and I wish to thank those who helped me during that period: the European Commission for financial support in the Marie Curie project TRANDSSAT; the TRANDSSAT team, comprising Salvo Drago, Lucien Breem, Domine Leenaerts, Kofi Makinwa, and Bram Nauta; Onur Kaya and Rabindra Rijal for helping with the 0.16-m-CMOS measurements; Maristella Spella and Muhammed Bolatkale for proofreading the manuscript; the Mixed Signals Circuits and Systems group of NXP Research, where the research was carried out; the Electronic Instrumentation Laboratory of Delft University. Finally, nothing would have been possible without the loving support of my family and my fiance´e Elisa. Eindhoven Fabio Sebastiano v Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Enhancing Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 References for Wireless Communication .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3 Fully-Integrated Time References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.4 Motivation and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.5 Organization of the Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 Fully Integrated Radios for Wireless Sensor Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.2 Requirements for a WSN Node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.2.1 Application .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.2.2 Cost and Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.2.3 Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.3 The Network Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.3.1 Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.3.2 Duty-Cycled Wake-Up Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.3.3 Optimization of MAC Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.3.4 Impact of Wake-Up Radio Non-idealities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.3.5 System Performance .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.3.6 Master Node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.4 Frequency Accuracy .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.4.1 RF Modulation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.4.2 Transmitter Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.4.3 Receiver Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.4.4 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.5 Node Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.5.1 Main Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.5.2 Wake-Up Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.5.3 Time Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 vii viii Contents 3 Fully Integrated Time References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.2 Sources of Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.2.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.2.2 Random Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.2.3 Systematic Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.3 RC-Based References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.3.1 Frequency Accuracy .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.3.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.3.3 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.4 LC-Based References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.4.1 Frequency Accuracy .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.4.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.4.3 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.5 Thermal-Diffusivity-Based References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.5.1 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.5.2 Frequency Accuracy .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.5.3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.5.4 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 3.6 MOS-Based References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.6.1 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.6.2 Frequency Accuracy .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.6.3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.6.4 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.7 Mobility-Based References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.7.1 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.7.2 Frequency Accuracy .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.7.3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.7.4 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.8 Other References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.9 Benchmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.9.1 Requirements for Time References for WSN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.9.2 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4 A Mobility-Based Time Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.2 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 4.3 Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 4.3.1 Deriving a Frequency from Carrier Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 4.3.2 Oscillator Topology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.4 Oscillator Accuracy.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4.4.1 Trimming and Temperature Compensation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4.4.2 Topology of the Current Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Contents ix 4.4.3 Accuracy of the Current Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.4.4 Accuracy of the Oscillator Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 4.4.5 Residual Source of Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.5 Circuit Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.5.1 Oscillator Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4.5.2 Current Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.5.3 Comparator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.6 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.7 On Temperature Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 4.8 Effects of Packaging and Process Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 4.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 5 Temperature Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 5.2 Architecture of the Time Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 5.3 Requirements on the Temperature Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 5.3.1 Sampling Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 5.3.2 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.3.3 Voltage Supply and Power Consumption .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.4 Temperature-Sensor Operating Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 5.5 Sources of Inaccuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 5.5.1 Non-idealities of Bipolar Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 5.5.2 ADC Accuracy and Quantization Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 5.5.3 Process Spread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 5.5.4 Non-linearity of Vbe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 5.6 Temperature-Sensor Circuit Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 5.6.1 Current Level in the Bipolar Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 5.6.2 Bias Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 5.6.3 Bipolar Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.6.4 Sigma-Delta ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.7 Temperature-Sensor Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 5.8 Temperature Compensation of the Time Reference .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 5.9 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 5.10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 6.1 Main Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 6.2 Applications.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 6.3 Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 A Derivation of the Accuracy of Mobility-Based Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 A.1 Composite MOS Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 x Contents A.2 Accuracy of the Mobility-Based Current Reference .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 A.2.1 Effect of Mismatch and Finite Output Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . 149 A.2.2 Effect of Leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 A.3 Matching of Current Mirrors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 A.4 Behavior of MOS Transistor Mismatch Over Temperature.. . . . . . . . . 153 A.4.1 Threshold Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 A.4.2 Current Factor (ˇ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 A.5 Charge of a MOS Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 B Analysis of the Spread of the Mobility-Based Time Reference . . . . . . . . . 159 B.1 Model for the Frequency Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 B.2 Analysis of Experimental Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

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