Mineralogy: An Introduction to Minerals, Rocks, and Mineral Deposits PDF
Preview Mineralogy: An Introduction to Minerals, Rocks, and Mineral Deposits
Martin Okrusch Hartwig E. Frimmel Mineralogy An Introduction to Minerals, Rocks, and Mineral Deposits Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and Environment The Springer Textbooks series publishes a broad portfolio of textbooks on Earth Sciences, Geography and Environmental Science. Springer textbooks provide comprehensive introductions as well as in-depth knowledge for advanced studies. A clear, reader-friendly layout and features such as end-of-chapter summaries, work examples, exercises, and glossaries help the reader to access the subject. Springer textbooks are essential for students, researchers and applied scientists. More information about this series at 7 http://www.springer.com/series/15201 Martin Okrusch Hartwig E. Frimmel Mineralogy An Introduction to Minerals, Rocks, and Mineral Deposits Martin Okrusch Hartwig E. Frimmel Institute of Geography and Geology Institute of Geography and Geology University of Würzburg University of Würzburg Würzburg, Bavaria, Germany Würzburg, Bavaria, Germany Department of Geological Sciences University of Cape Town Rondebosch, South Africa ISSN 2510-1307 ISSN 2510-1315 (electronic) Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and Environment ISBN 978-3-662-57314-3 ISBN 978-3-662-57316-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-57316-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018945875 © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover photograph: Azurite crystals, partly replaced by malachite, Tsumeb mine, Namibia; width of view ca. 3 cm; collection H.E. Frimmel, photo: K.-P. Kelber. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE part of Springer Nature The registered company address is: Heidelberger Platz 3, 14197 Berlin, Germany V Preface Thirty-five years ago Siegfried Matthes, chair the text. This is admittedly an artefact from taking of mineralogy at the University of Würzburg at the German version of the textbook as a blueprint that time, wrote a German book on Mineralogy, but also brings to the fore the high significance of designed as introduction to the fields of mineral- German speaking scientists in the historic devel- ogy, petrology and mineral deposits. That book, opment of mineralogy and petrology as well as mainly aimed at students of mineralogy and geo- the fact that many type localities of rocks, miner- logical sciences in general, quickly became one of als or deposits happen to be located in Germany. the most popular textbooks of its kind amongst German-speaking students. Encouraged by its Invariably there are numerous books on the top- success, author and publisher (Springer) repeat- ics of crystallography, mineralogy, petrology, edly improved the contents in a series of new geochemistry, mineral deposits etc. What makes revised editions. After Matthes’ death in 1999, this book different is that much of these topics is one of us, Martin Okrusch, who had succeeded treated under a single cover. This reflects not only Matthes as chair of mineralogy, took up the chal- a trend in geoscience training at universities from lenge to continue this tradition and produced a individual semester courses on these topics to series of new editions of the book—the ninth edi- combined courses that deal with all of the above tion was published in 2014. Over the past years but also the interconnectivity between these tra- he continuously updated the content and added ditional fields of geosciences. For example, with new chapters, in some cases with the help from the growing public awareness of the need for dis- other experts, to ensure that the book remained covering new mineral resources to maintain the and still remains the German geoscience students’ high standards of living we have become used top choice. One of the reasons for the high pop- to in the industrialised nations and to enable ularity of the book has been its comprehensive- those in the emerging countries to achieve such ness. Many subjects are dealt with to an extent standards in the future, an improved knowledge that goes beyond what is typically expected from of mineral deposits is required. This cannot be students at exams and thus the book naturally achieved without a sound understanding of min- survives the student days of its owner, when eralogy, petrology and geochemistry. he or she finds it a valuable reference during post-graduate employment, be it in academia, as The book is subdivided into four parts. First, consultant or in industry. some basic crystallographic, mineralogical and petrographic terms and concepts are explained, In the meantime the baton of the chair of miner- all of which is necessary to characterise geoma- alogy had been passed on to the next generation, terials, such as minerals, rocks and ores. The sec- that is, the junior author of this book, and the ond part deals with systematic mineralogy and invitation was expressed to team up and continue thus lays the foundation for the third and largest with the by now long tradition of this highly suc- part, the description of the various rock types cessful textbook. At that stage the idea was born and mineral deposits. Emphasis is placed on to write the next edition for an English-speaking genetic concepts in order to ignite an interest in, readership. This resulted on the one hand from and understanding of, processes that shaped and the wish to make available this sought-after text- shape our surroundings on this planet as well as book also to students and interested profession- those that form rocks of economic value. The final als outside of the German-speaking countries part concerns the chemical make-up not only of and, on the other hand, from the realisation that planet Earth but also of extraterrestrial material, even for German-speaking students, it can only such as meteorites or lunar rocks, as well as that be beneficial if they become familiar, already at of the other planets. This leads to a concluding undergraduate level, with the English professional review of our current thinking about the origin of terminology since English has become the global our solar system. language in geoscientific communication. The reader is expected to bring along some Although we tried to refer to places and/or people understanding of physical geology as well as basic from all over the world when illustrating certain knowledge of college-level inorganic chemistry. processes or concepts, the attentive reader might For those who want to go beyond the level of a notice some bias towards German examples in textbook or look for more detailed background VI Preface information, a bibliography is given at the end of Denis Smith (Adelaide, Australia), Wilhelm each chapter. These bibliographies are by far not Stürmer (Erlangen), Ekkehart Tillmanns (Wien), exhaustive but can only be snapshots of the cur- Thomas Will (Würzburg) and Armin Zeh (Karls- rent professional literature. Not only the refer- ruhe). If not otherwise stated, line drawings as ences cited in the text are listed therein but also well as photographs of samples and thin sections references that are particularly useful for fol- were made by Klaus-Peter Kelber (Würzburg), low-up reading on the various topics dealt with. which is highly appreciated. We also thank Stefan Höhn (Würzburg) for designing the English ver- The project of writing such a book cannot be sions of the line drawings. Our special thanks go achieved without the help, in various kinds, from to Armin Stasch (Bayreuth) for careful editorial numerous people. Several colleagues had contrib- editing and compiling the subject and geograph- uted to the German version of the textbook and ical indices. The endeavour of writing this book their contributions have been incorporated into would not have happened without the enthusi- this book as well. Major updates and revisions astic encouragement and support by Annett Büt- were provided by Hans Ulrich Bambauer (Mün- tner from Springer Nature, the production of the ster/Ostbevern), Gerd Geyer (Würzburg), Reiner book not possible without the excellent work by Klemd (Erlangen), Herbert Kroll (Münster), the entire Springer Nature team, especially J. Viju Karl Mannheim (Würzburg), and Dieter Stöffler Falgon and Karthik Raj Selvaraj for the technical (Berlin). For constructive criticism and impor- editing and lay-out. We would also like to extend tant hints as well as providing new photographs our thanks to our wives, Irene Okrusch and Elis- and diagrams fort the English edition thanks are abeth Nachtnebel, respectively, for their patience due, in addition to the above, to Christian Hager with us while preparing the manuscript. (Engelschoff), François Holtz (Hannover), Dor- othée Kleinschrot (Würzburg), Michael Kleber We hope that this book will prove useful and (Mutmannsreuth), Nikola Koglin (Hannover), helpful to both students of, and lecturers in, geo- Herbert Kroll (Münster), Rob Lavisnky (Dal- sciences but also to professionals who need a reli- las, USA), Heike Lehner (Heidelberg), Joachim able reference for basic concepts they might have Lorenz (Karlstein am Main), Karl Mannheim learned at some stage at university as well as to (Würzburg), Vesna Marchig (Hannover), Pete interested mineral collectors. Mouginis-Mark (Honolulu), Andrea Murphy (Adelaide, Australia), Martin Pfleghaar (Hei- Martin Okrusch delberg), Cornelia Schmitt-Riegraf (Münster), Hartwig Frimmel Ulrich Schüßler (Würzburg), Hans Adolf Seck† Würzburg, Germany (Köln), Volker von Seckendorff (Würzburg), January 2019 VII Contents Part I Introduction and Basic Concepts 1 Crystals ......................................................................................... 3 1.1 Crystal Morphology .............................................................................. 4 1.2 Crystal Structures ................................................................................ 9 1.3 Crystal Chemistry ................................................................................ 12 1.4 Physical Properties of Crystals .................................................................... 16 1.5 Optical Crystallography .......................................................................... 20 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 29 2 Minerals ........................................................................................ 31 2.1 Definition of the Term Mineral .................................................................... 32 2.2 Identification and Classification of Minerals ....................................................... 34 2.3 Mode of Occurrence .............................................................................. 35 2.4 Rock-Forming and Economic Minerals ............................................................ 37 2.5 Biomineralisation and Medical Mineralogy ....................................................... 42 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 52 3 Rocks ........................................................................................... 55 3.1 Mineralogical Composition of Rocks .............................................................. 56 3.2 Relationships Between Lithogeochemistry and Mineralogy ....................................... 56 3.3 Rock Fabric ...................................................................................... 57 3.4 Field Relationships ............................................................................... 59 3.5 Principal Rock-Forming Processes ................................................................ 60 3.6 Mineral Deposits ................................................................................. 64 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 67 Part II Systematic Mineralogy 4 Elements ....................................................................................... 71 4.1 Metals ........................................................................................... 72 4.2 Metalloids (Semi-metals) ......................................................................... 78 4.3 Non-metals ...................................................................................... 78 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 85 5 Sulfides, Arsenides and Complex Sulfides (Sulfosalts) ..................................... 87 5.1 Metal Sulfides with M:S > 1:1 (Generally 2:1) ...................................................... 88 5.2 Metal Sulfides and Arsenides with M:S = 1:1 ....................................................... 90 5.3 Metal Sulfides, Sulfarsenides and Arsenides with M:S = 1:2 ......................................... 96 5.4 Arsenic Sulfides .................................................................................. 102 5.5 Complex Metal Sulfides (Sulfosalts) ............................................................... 102 References ....................................................................................... 104 6 Halides ......................................................................................... 105 References ....................................................................................... 109 7 Oxides and Hydroxides ....................................................................... 111 7.1 M O Compounds ................................................................................. 112 2 7.2 M O Compounds ................................................................................ 112 3 4 7.3 M O Compounds ................................................................................ 116 2 3 VVIIIIII CCoonntteennttss 7.4 MO Compounds ................................................................................. 120 2 7.5 Hydroxides ....................................................................................... 124 References ....................................................................................... 126 8 Carbonates, Nitrates and Borates ............................................................ 127 3¯ 8.1 Calcite Group, 2/m .............................................................................. 128 8.2 Aragonite Group, 2/m2/m2/m .................................................................... 132 8.3 Dolomite Group .................................................................................. 135 8.4 Azurite-Malachite Group ......................................................................... 136 8.5 Nitrates .......................................................................................... 137 8.6 Borates .......................................................................................... 138 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 140 9 Sulfates, Chromates, Molybdates, Wolframates ............................................ 141 9.1 Sulfates .......................................................................................... 142 9.2 Chromates ....................................................................................... 147 9.3 Molybdates and Wolframates ..................................................................... 147 Suggestions for Further Reading ................................................................. 149 10 Phosphates, Arsenates, Vanadates .......................................................... 151 Suggestions for Further Reading ................................................................. 155 11 Silicates ........................................................................................ 157 11.1 Orthosilicates (Nesosilicates) ..................................................................... 160 11.2 Disilicates (Sorosilicates) ......................................................................... 169 11.3 Ring Silicates (Cyclosilicates) ..................................................................... 172 11.4 Chain Silicates (Inosilicates) ...................................................................... 177 11.5 Sheet Silicates (Phyllosilicates) ................................................................... 189 11.6 Framework Silicates (Tectosilicates). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 237 12 Fluid Inclusions in Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 References ....................................................................................... 246 Part III Petrology and Metallogenesis 13 Igneous Rocks ................................................................................. 249 13.1 Classification of Igneous Rocks ................................................................... 250 13.2 Petrography of Igneous Rocks .................................................................... 257 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 273 14 Volcanism ...................................................................................... 275 14.1 Effusive Volcanism: Lava Flows ................................................................... 277 14.2 Extrusive Volcanism .............................................................................. 280 14.3 Explosive Volcanism .............................................................................. 281 14.4 Mixed Volcanic Activity: Stratovolcanoes ......................................................... 286 14.5 Volcanic Exhalations ............................................................................. 286 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 289 15 Plutonism ...................................................................................... 291 15.1 Volcanic Roots and Magma Chambers ............................................................ 292 15.2 Shapes of Plutonic and Subvolcanic Intrusive Bodies .............................................. 293 15.3 Internal Structure and Emplacement of Intrusive Bodies .......................................... 294 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 297 IIXX CCoonntteennttss 16 Magma and Lava .............................................................................. 299 16.1 Chemical Composition and Structure of Magma .................................................. 300 16.2 Volcanic Gases ................................................................................... 300 16.3 Temperatures of Magmas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 16.4 Viscosity of Magmas and Lavas ................................................................... 303 16.5 Solubility of Volatiles in Magma .................................................................. 304 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 305 17 Formation and Evolution of Magmas ........................................................ 307 17.1 Magma Series .................................................................................... 308 17.2 Primary and Parental Melts ....................................................................... 308 17.3 Magma Mixing ................................................................................... 310 17.4 Magmatic Differentiation ......................................................................... 311 17.5 Assimilation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 314 18 Experiments on Magmatic Model Systems .................................................. 317 18.1 The Gibbs’ Phase Rule ............................................................................ 318 18.2 Experiments in Binary and Ternary Systems ....................................................... 319 18.3 Bowen’s Reaction Series .......................................................................... 334 18.4 The Basalt Tetrahedron of Yoder and Tilley (1962) ................................................. 337 18.5 Equilibrium Melting and Fractionated Melting .................................................... 338 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 339 19 The Origin of Basalt ........................................................................... 341 19.1 Basalt Types and Plate Tectonics .................................................................. 342 19.2 Formation of Basaltic Melts by Partial Melting of Peridotite in Earth’s Upper Mantle ............... 343 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 346 20 The Origin of Granite .......................................................................... 347 20.1 Petrogenetic Classification of Granitoids Based on Their Chemical Composition ................... 348 20.2 Experiments on the Petrogenesis of Granite ...................................................... 349 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 357 21 Orthomagmatic Mineral Deposits ........................................................... 359 21.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 360 21.2 Mineralisation Due to Fractional Crystallisation ................................................... 360 21.3 Mineralisation Due to Liquid Immiscibility ........................................................ 364 21.4 Carbonatite- and Alkaline-Magmatic Rock-Hosted Deposits ....................................... 367 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 368 22 Pegmatites ..................................................................................... 371 22.1 Theoretical Considerations ....................................................................... 372 22.2 Field Relations, Petrography and Petrogenesis of Pegmatites ...................................... 373 22.3 Pegmatites as Sources of Economic Minerals ...................................................... 375 22.4 Geochemical Classification of Granitic Pegmatites ................................................ 376 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 377 23 Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 23.1 Basic Principles .................................................................................. 380 23.2 Hydrothermal Impregnation Deposits ............................................................ 382 23.3 Hydrothermal Replacement Deposits ............................................................. 386 23.4 Hydrothermal Vein-Type Deposits ................................................................ 388 23.5 Volcanogenic-Sedimentary Ore Deposits ......................................................... 395 23.6 Non-magmatic Stratabound Hydrothermal Deposits .............................................. 400 23.7 Unconformity-Related Uranium Deposits ......................................................... 401 References and Suggestions for Further Reading .................................................. 402
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