Mineral Exploration Principles and Applications S. K. Haldar Emeritus Scientist, Dept. of Applied Geology & Environmental System Management, Presidency University, Kolkata-700 073, and IMX Resources Limited, Australia. Formerly, Hindustan Zinc Limited, Hindustan Copper Limited, ESSO INC and BIL Infratech Ltd, India. AMSTERDAM(cid:1)BOSTON(cid:1)HEIDELBERG(cid:1)LONDON(cid:1)NEWYORK(cid:1)OXFORD PARIS(cid:1)SANDIEGO(cid:1)SANFRANCISCO(cid:1)SINGAPORE(cid:1)SYDNEY(cid:1)TOKYO Elsevier 225WymanStreet,Waltham,MA02451,USA TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,Oxford,OX51GB,UK Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,TheNetherlands Copyright(cid:1)2013ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeanselectronic, mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwisewithoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher PermissionsmaybesoughtdirectlyfromElsevier’sScience&TechnologyRightsDepartmentinOxford,UK:phone(+44)(0)1865 843830;fax(+44)(0)1865853333;email:permissions@elsevier.com.Alternativelyyoucansubmityourrequestonlinebyvisitingthe Elsevierwebsiteathttp://elsevier.com/locate/permissions,andselectingObtainingpermissiontouseElseviermaterial Notice Noresponsibilityisassumedbythepublisherforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability, negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructionsorideascontainedinthematerialherein LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Mineralexplorations:principlesandapplications/editedbySwapanHaldar. pagescm Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-0-12-416005-7 1.Prospecting.2.Minesandmineralresources.I.Haldar,S.K. TN270.M65542013 6220.1–dc23 2012039837 BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-0-12-416005-7 ForinformationonallElsevierpublications visitourwebsiteatstore.elsevier.com PrintedandboundinRepublicofChina 1314151617 10987654321 Dedicated to all my students in mineral exploration e Past, Present and Future e Who taught me the art of teaching, motivated me to keep learning and galvanized me to write this book And Little Srishti and Srishta Who inspired me to love Mother Nature! Preface I was often fascinated and enjoyed delivering occasional with holistic approach, covering entire scope of mineral technical lectures to the students and research scholars of exploration and beyond during their academic study academic institutions throughout my 37 years of profes- and as reference book while in job. The book “Mineral sional period with ESSO Standard Eastern Inc ExplorationdPrinciples and Applications” is the (1966e1967), Hindustan Copper Limited (1968e1975) outgrowthofmyclasslectures.Thetextisframedkeeping and Hindustan Zinc Limited (1975e2001). I also took thestudentspursuingbothundergraduateandmasterslevel pleasure in addressing group of geoscientists, mining courses in Pure and Applied Geology and allied subjects, engineersandteachingfacultiesfromindustryandnational teachers and professionals in mineral exploration, mining, institutions during various specialized training programs. beneficiation,environmental system management, mineral ButmydreamofteachingstudentscametruewhenIgotthe policies and acts behind the scene through out. This book opportunity, after relinquishing myjob, tojoin Presidency willalsoendurethenecessitiesofthecandidatesappearing College, Kolkata as Emeritus Scientist. Department of for federal, state, regional and provincial geological Science and Technology (DST), Government of India, services, forest and environment jobs, federal and state sponsoredtwoofmyresearchprojectssuccessivelyduring administrative and professional services, academic 2003e2006 and 2008e2010. As a spin off activity and entrance tests and other competitive written examinations ethicalcommitmentsIstartedregularteaching,boththeory andinterviews.Myeffortsinthisattemptwillbejudgedby and practical, onvarious aspects of mineral exploration to thelikingofthesubjectandsuccessofmystudentsdpast, the postgraduate students of Applied Geology and Envi- present and future. ronmental System Management of the department. My “Mineral ExplorationdPrinciples and Applications” teachingspreecontinuedtoM.ScandM.Techstudentsof divided into 15 chapters, discusses the basic elements of IndianSchoolofMines,Dhanbad,too. exploration on modern thoughts and information adopting Since 2004, I am retained by M/s Goldstream Mining the most desirable order and methods of presentation. NL/IMX Resources Limited, Perth, Australia, as explora- Each chapter defines the theory (Principles) first followed tion consultant looking for their interests in platinum, by actual practices (Applications) in the field and indus- chromium,nickel,copper,goldandassociatedmineralsin tries.Thechaptershavebeendesignedtosetupwithneed India with extensive field visits. Other recent assignments of the subject, initial definitions, types and stages of are consultancy with M/s McNally Bharat Ltd (2010) and mineral discovery, exploration methods, namely, geolog- BIL Infratech Ltd (2011e2012), India, for technical and ical, geochemical, geophysical, photo geology and economic evaluation of zinceleadecopper projects in remotesensing,sampling,mineralresourceandorereserve Saudi Arabia, Australia, South Africa, Tunisia, Mexico, estimation, classification system and code, statistical Eritrea, Montenegro and Chile including couple of field and geo-statistical applications, mining practices, mineral visits. beneficiation, environmental aspects and sustainable Duringmyformalclassroomteachingassignment,my development,economicevaluationandfeasibilitystudyof endeavor was to mix my long practical multipurpose mineral property. The chapters start with mineral policy, industrial experiences, technical consultancy to multina- mining acts and end with 11 exploration case histories for tional companies and DST research projects with the the international readers. The book provides 350 illustra- essence of academic aspect of the subject. In this process, tions and field-industrial images for systematic represen- Ialsotriedtoreadthestudents’attitude,aptitude,mindset, tation ofthevarious concepts and actual procedures. body language and their expectations. It helps me to I have consulted many technical books during the improvemyclarityofthoughtsandexpressiondaybyday. preparation of the manuscript. The concepts of those Icouldvisualizetheirlevelofunderstandingofthesubject authors have clarified many of my questions. I have whileevaluatingtheiranswerpapers.Itseemedtomethat specifically acknowledged those books and authors and one of the expectations of the students from both the recommendedasadditionalstudymaterialstomyreaders. institutes is to gift them a comprehensive text book, Prof P. R. Mohanty and Prof Shalivan from ISM critically xiii xiv Preface reviewed Chapter 5 on “Exploration Geophysics”. I often BIL Infratech Ltd. I sincerely acknowledge and state my shared with Prof A. B. Roy, FNA and Emeritus Scientist, indebtedness to each Institution. It was my learning expe- Presidency University, on various aspects of the book. rience with Elsevier and I enjoyed my association with I acknowledge each one of peer reviewers, namely, Prof SiddharthaGhosh,EditorialCoordinator,Asia-Pacific,Mrs Martin Hale, University of Twente, The Netherlands, Linda Versteeg, Associate Acquisition Editor, The DrD.B.Sikka,BarfanisaiEnterpriseInc.Canada,ProfE. Netherlands, John Fedor, Senior Acquisitions Editor, NY, C.Nehru,BrooklynCollege,NY,ProfB.C.Sarkar,HOD, Ms Morrissey Kathryn (Katy), Editorial Project Manager, ISM, Dhanbad, Dr William Petuk, Canada, Finn Barrett, MA and Poulouse Joseph, Project Manager- Book Publi- IMX Resource Ltd, Perth, L. Moharana, BHP Billiton, cationDivisionandteaminIndiafortheirgreatfriendliness Perth,ProfG.N.Jadhav,IITMumbaiandProfAsisBasu, throughout development of this book. I appreciate each RochesterUniversity,NY,fortheirkeeninteresttoevaluate member of the design, production and marketing team for thebookproposal,decisiveanalysisinthecontextofglobal sincere collaboration. scenario and very best encouraging reflections articulated Acknowledgement isthe privilegeof the author. Many about the book. My inquisitive students, with whose able colleagues from industry, teachers and students, in partic- aid I applied the concept, supported me through and ular, encouraged and enriched me with valuable sugges- through, and I would like to thank each one of them. Ms tions for improvement. I do not wish to record specific NandiniKar,oneofmyPGstudents,hasgonethroughthe names with a view not to miss any one. However, I am entire manuscript for its acceptability among them. Ms unable to resist mentioning my two little grand children, Joyasree Sinha drafted mostof the linedrawings. “Srishti and Srishta”, who did not allow me to work The book could be conceived and finished at the Pres- during their vacations with us, but infused tremendous idency University with the opportunity for class room energyinmewhentheyleftforUSA.Andfinally,Iextend teaching and evaluation provided by Prof H. N. Bhatta- my whole hearted thanks to my wife, “Swapna”, whose charya, HOD, Department of Applied Geology and Envi- enthusiasmandcriticismkeptmeontoesandsustainedme ronment System Management. Prof Prabir Das Gupta and toimprove on everyaspectofacademic character. Ms Ausmita Kaviraj took sincere interest for image conversionand software exposure,respectively. "I do not know what I may appear to theworld; but to myself I Swami Buddhadevananda, President, Rama Krishna seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and Math, Barisa, Kolkata, Prof Daya Kishore and Nandita diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or Hazra, S. N. Medical College, Agra, Prof R. V. Karanth, aprettiershellthanordinary,whilethegreatoceanoftruthlayall M. S. University, Vadodara and Mr C. R. Chakraborty, undiscoveredbeforeme..IfIamanything,whichIhighlydoubt, Kolkatainspiredmethroughoutthemanuscriptpreparation. Ihavemademyselfsobyhardwork" All the chapters are edited by “Soumi”, my daughter, eSirIsaacNewton. whileshecametorelaxwithusonDurgaPujaorsummer As always, I acknowledge the supreme entity that makes vacations (2006, 2008, 2010 and 2012) and our visit to sense of it all, and urges us to seek for ourselves the ulti- them at USA (2004, 2005, 2011) followed by online mate truth. In that pursuit, this treatise is dedicatedd communication from Chicago, Florida and Studio City, “To strive,to seek, tofind,and notto yield”. CA. Suratwant, my son-in-law, who advocated the title of thebooktoo,ismysourceofinspirationforalltimesinthis S.K. Haldar endeavor. Presidency University, Kolkata Mostoftheexamplesandimages,Ihaveshared,arethe 29th June, 2012 life time academic collection during my association with M/s Hindustan Zinc Limited, Goldstream Mining NL and List of Acronyms used in this book GENERAL TM ThematicMapper tpa/tpy tonesperannum/year AngloAmerican Globalleaderinmining tpd tonesperday BM BureauofMines UNFC UnitedNationsFrameworkClassification BHPBilliton Aleadingglobalresourcescompany USGS UnitedStateGeologicalsurvey/ BIL BinaniInfratechLtd,India USBM UnitedStateBureauofMines CAPEX CapitalExpenditure UTMSystem UniversalTransverseMercatorSystem Goldstream GoldstreamMiningNL,Perth,Australia VCR VerticalCraterRetreat GDP GrossDomesticProduct VHMS VolcanicHostedMassiveSulfide GSI GeologicalSurveyofIndia VMS VolcanogenicMassiveSulfide HCL HindustanCopperLimited,Kolkata,India VRM VerticalRetreatMining HZL HindustanZincLimited,Udaipur,India WHO WorldHealthOrganization IMX IMXResourcesLimited,Perth,Australia ZM ZawarGroupofMines,India IS Indianstandards LBMA LondonBullionMarketAssociation LME LondonMetalExchange MINERALS JORC (Australasian)JointOreReserves Committee Cp Chalcopyrite MCDR MineralConservationandDevelopment Ga Galena Rules Po Pyrrhotite MCR MineralConcessionRules Py Pyrite MECL MineralExplorationCorporationLimited, Sp Sphalerite Nagpur,India MMRDACT MinesandMinerals(Regulation& METALS Development)Act MPRDA Minerals&PetroleumResources Ag Silver DevelopmentAct Al Aluminium ML MiningLease/Licence As Arsenic MOE MinistryofEnvironment Au Gold MOF MinistryofForest Bi Bismuth MOM MinistryofMines Ca Calcium MSS Multi-SpectralScanner Cd Cadmium MtIsa MountIsamine,Australia Ce Cerium MVT MississippiValleyType Co Cobalt NMP NationalMineralPolicy Cr Chromium OB OverBurden Cu Copper OMS OreManShift F Fluorine OPEX OperatingExpenditure Fe Iron PL ProspectingLicence He Helium RA RampuraAguchamine,India Hg Mercury RD RajpuraDaribamine,India K Potassium ROM Run-of-Mine La Lanthanum RP ReconnaissancePermit Li Lithium SEDEX SedimentaryExhalative Mn Manganese SK SindesarKhurdZn-Pb-Agdeposit,India Mo Molybdenum Sp.Gr SpecificGravity N Nitrogen xv xvi List ofAcronymsusedin this book Na Sodium EuroMembers EUR € Nd Neodymium IndiaRupee INR Ni Nickel SaudiArabiaRiyal SAR Pb Lead SouthAfrica ZAR R Pd Palladium TunisiaDinar TND Pm Promethium UnitedKingdomPound GBP £ Pt Platinum UnitedStatesDollar USD $ Te Tellurium ZimbabweDollar ZWD Z$ Rb Rubidium Rn Radon Sb Antimony WEIGHTS Se Selenium‘ Bt Billiontonnes Si Silicon lb pound Sm Samarium Kg Kilogram Sr Strontium Mt Milliontonnes U Uranium t tonne Zn Zinc TIME SCALE LENGTH AD AnnoDomoni(yearafterJesusChrist’sbirth) m metre BC BeforeChrist(year) cm centimetre Ga Gigga(109)orBillionage(years) Ma Million(106)age(years) CURRENCY Currency Currency Country/Currency Code Image AustraliaDollar AUD $ CanadaDollar CAD $ ChilePeso CLP $ About the Author postgraduatestudentsofthedepartmentandoftenatIndian School of Mines, Dhanbad. He is consultant with interna- tionalexplorationentities,namely,GoldstreamMiningNL/ IMXResourcesLtd,AustraliaandBILInfratechLtd,India. Hisprofessionhasoftenrequiredvisitsandinteractionwith experts of zinceleadegoldetinechromiumenickel and platinum mines and exploration camps of Australiad Tasmania, Canada, Germany, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, France, Italy, Nepal, The Netherlands, Switzerland, Egypt andUSA.Heisalife-fellowofTheMiningGeologicaland Metallurgical Institutes of India and Indian Geological Congress. Dr Haldar is recipient of “Dr J. Coggin Brown Memorial (Gold Medal) for Geological Sciences” by S.K.Haldar(SwapanKumarHaldar)hasbeenapracticing MGMI. He authored “Exploration Modeling of Base veteran in the field of Mineral Exploration and metal Metal Deposits”, 2007, Elsevier. Dr Haldar has a unique mining forthe past four andhalf decades. He receivedhis professional blend of mineral exploration, evaluation and B. Sc (Hons) and M. Sc degree from Calcutta University mineral economics with an essence of classroom teaching and Doctorate from Indian Institute of Technology, ofpostgraduatestudentsoftwocelebrityUniversitiesover Kharagpur.Themajorpartofhiscareerfrom1966hasbeen the lastone decade. focusedonbaseandnoblemetalsexploration/miningwith short stopover at ESSO Petroleum, Hindustan Copper Limited and finally Hindustan Zinc Limited where he S.K. Haldar undertook a varied set of technical roles and managerial Emeritus Scientist, Department of Applied Geology responsibilities. Since 2003 he is associated as Emeritus Presidency University, Kolkata ScientistwithDepartmentofAppliedGeology,Presidency Former Chief Managerd University, Kolkata and teaching mineral exploration to Geology Hindustan Zinc Limited, India xvii Chapter 1 Mineral Exploration Chapter Outline 1.3.2.3. Prospecting 9 1.1. Introduction 1 1.3.2.4. GeneralExploration 10 1.1.1. WhyMineralExploration? 1 1.3.2.5. DetailExploration 10 1.2. Definition 2 1.3.2.6. OngoingExploration 10 1.2.1. MineralandRock 2 1.3.2.7. ExplorationScheme 10 1.2.2. Ore 2 1.4. MineralPolicyandAct 12 1.2.3. OreDeposit 7 1.4.1. Australia 12 1.2.4. PrimeCommodity,AssociatedCommodityand 1.4.2. Canada 13 TraceElement 7 1.4.3. Chile 14 1.2.5. Protore 7 1.4.4. India 15 1.2.6. GangueMineralsandTailing 8 1.4.5. Portugal 17 1.2.7. DeleteriousSubstances 8 1.4.6. SouthAfrica 18 1.3. Exploration 8 1.4.7. Tunisia 18 1.3.1. DiscoveryType 8 1.4.8. RoyaltiesandTaxation 20 1.3.1.1. GreenfieldDiscovery 8 1.4.9. LeaseApplication 20 1.3.1.2. BrownfieldDiscovery 8 1.5. MineraltoMetaldAFullCircle 21 1.3.2. StagesofExploration 8 FurtherReading 21 1.3.2.1. Reconnaissance 9 1.3.2.2. LargeAreaProspecting 9 state-of-the-art exploration techniques, trained man Goodexplorationplanninganddecisionmakingemeasurerisk power, scientific knowledge, ample experience, high-end andreward;persistwherethegeologyisencouragingandwhere data processing system and interpretation skill. The total therewardswillbelarge;recognizewhenyouhavefailed. procedure would be achieved step by step in a dynamic dCameronR.Allen,ComincoLtd. and logical sequence. 1.1.1. Why Mineral Exploration? 1.1. INTRODUCTION The mineral reserves and resources, annual productionvs. consumption and index of per capita spending of any Mineralsandmetalsareoneoftheessentialcomponentsfor commodity are the measures that rank the status of thegrowth of human society. Needs of survival taught the acountryasdeveloped,developingorunderdeveloped.The prehistoricPaleolithicmentheusesofstonesastoolseven per capita consumption of zinc in India during 2008 was before 20,000 years ago. The discovery of minerals, its verylowat0.43kgagainstaworldaverageof4.3kg.The exploitationandusesbecamemanyfoldswiththeadventof higher consumption during the same period was shared civilizationand iscontinuingtilldate. between Australia (12.7kg), South Korea (11.3kg), A mineral deposit, more meaningfully concentration Canada (5.6kg), Japan (5kg), USA (4.1kg) and China ofspecificmineral,istoosmallasizeincomparisontothe (2.7kg).ThepolicymakersintheGovernmentandPrivate Earth’s crust. Deposits near the surface had been discov- Sectorsallocatefundsforlong-andshort-termexploration ered over the centuries, mined out and metals extracted. plan programs guided by the demand-supply trend of all Future searches will be aimed at naturally occurring commodities as a whole. The fund allocation has special concealed types. It may rarely show surface signatures significanceforstrategicanddeficientminerals.Theannual likeweatheredoutcropandarecoveredundertransported percent satisfaction between consumption and indigenous soil. The new discovery will not be easy. It will require production of zinc metal between 1992-1993 and 1 MineralExploration.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-416005-7.00001-5 Copyright(cid:1)2013ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 2 Mineral Exploration 2009-2010 at an annual growth rate of 8-10% has been depictedin Fig.1.1. The existing demand-supply disparity can be reduced by expanding the mining and smelting capacity with the on hand ore reserves as short-term ad hoc measure. The ultimate way out for long-term standpoint would be continuous efforts to enhance reserve and resource base. This is possible by new search, discovery and adequate exploration of mineral deposits, economic mining and smelting. The rate of reserve augmentation must commensurate with annual growth of the particular commodity (Fig. 1.2). The working group of sustainable mineral resource development program plans on the same analogy for future exploration investment in the FIGURE1.2 Projectedreserverequirementofzincatanannualgrowth country. rateof8-10%upto2015at90%mining-smeltingcapacityinIndia. Theprocessofmineraldiscoveryanditsdevelopment toatargetproductioncentertakesalonggestationperiod of about 5-20 years. In terms of business requirements, Someofthecommonbasicterminologiesthatwouldbe this translates to a very high-risk tolerance at all levels, referred frequently in the subsequent chapters are defined extensive period of time and rich pockets for a sustained here after. cash flow. A small business unit in this field may often end its brief tenure with a total loss, in case of failure to 1.2. DEFINITION make an economic return. Indeed, many of the discov- eries are not viable at current market prices. Prima facie, 1.2.1. Mineral and Rock the facts might indicate that investment in these ventures is a waste. However, one discovery out of 100 or even “Mineral” is a homogeneous inorganic substance that 1000 attempts may pay back the entire efforts. The task occursnaturally,usuallyincrystallineformwithadefinite of policy maker is to plan timely allocation of funds for chemical composition. It is generally in solid form, the exploration and technology research of various mineral exceptions being mercury, natural water and fossil fuel. types, predicated on long-term demand and supply The common rock-forming minerals (RFM) are quartz scenarios. Therefore, an investment-friendly environ- (SiO2), orthoclase feldspar (KAlSi3O8), plagioclase ment, transparency and will of the Federal and the State feldspar (CaNaAlSi3O8), albite (NaAlSi3O8), mica group Government and exploration companies and the political such as muscovite (H2KAL3 (SiO4)3) and biotite commitment of the regime are essential for mineral (H2K(MgFe)3Al (SiO4)3). The common ore-forming development in any country. minerals (OFM) are hematite (Fe2O3), cassiterite (SnO2), chalcopyrite (CuFeS ), sphalerite (ZnS), galena (PbS), 2 baryte (BaSO 2H O), gypsum (CaSO ), apatite 4 2 4 (Ca (PO ) (F,Cl,OH)), etc. 5 4 3 “Rock” is an assemblage of mineral(s) formed under natural process of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic origin. The common rocks are basalt, granite, quartzite, sandstone, limestone,marbleand mica-schist. 1.2.2. Ore In the past, the word “ore” was restricted exclusively to naturallyoccurringmaterialfromwhichoneormoretypes of metal could be mined and extracted at a profit. The economic deposits comprising of industrial minerals, rocks, bulk materials, gemstones and fossil fuel were excluded from ore. The concept has undergone radical changes over the years. The Institution of Mining and FIGURE 1.1 Satisfaction (%) of demand and supply of zinc metal Metallurgy, UK, currently defines “Ore as a solid natu- between1992-1993and2009-2010inIndia. rally occurring mineral aggregate of economic interest