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Microelectronics S e c o n d E d i t i o n © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Microelectronics S e c o n d E d i t i o n Jerry C. Whitaker Boca Raton London New York A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC This material was previously published in The Electronics Handbook, Second Edition. © CRC Press LLC 2005. Published in 2006 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-3391-1 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-3391-0 (Hardcover) Library of Congress Card Number 2005053102 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. 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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Microelectronics / [edited by] Jerry C. Whitaker.-- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8493-3391-1 (alk. paper) 1. Microelectronics. I. Whitaker, Jerry C. TK7874.M4587 2005 621.381--dc22 2005053102 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com Taylor & Francis Group and the CRC Press Web site at is the Academic Division of Informa plc. http://www.crcpress.com © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Preface Thedisciplineofmicroelectronicshasplayedafundamentalroleinshapingtheelectronicsindustry,as wellasrelatedindustriesthatrelyonelectroniccomponentsandsubsystems.Inarealmwherechanges happenfrequentlyanddramatically,theconstantthemesthathavepersistedareminiaturization,increased speed,reducedpowerconsumption,andreducedcost.Theseeffectshaveresultedinanincreaseddemand formicroelectronicsinallsectorsofconsumer,industrial,andmilitaryproducts.Advancementsinman- ufacturinghaveenabledthesedevicestobeproducedinveryhighvolumes,therebyreducingthecostper device.Inturn,thelowercostfuelsfuturedemandwhichpushestheindustryforfurtherminiaturization andhighervolumemanufacturing. Thecombinationofreducedsize,increasedspeed,andincreasedcapacityofmicroelectronicsdevices was first observed by Gordon E. Moore (the legendary Chairman of Intel)who during the 1960s commented thatthefeaturesizeofsemiconductortransistorsreducedby10percentperyear.Infact,thereductionhas beenevenmoredramaticthanthat.Thecapacityofdynamicrandomaccessmemory(DRAM)integrated circuitshasquadrupledapproximatelyeverythreeyears.Theincreaseddensityoftransistorscontainedin microelectronicdeviceshasresultedinaphenomenonofvirtually“freecomputingpower.” Thedigitalrevolutionofthe1980susheredintheso-calledInformationAge,andwithitcamesubstantial growthofdatarecordingsystems,primarilyassociatedwiththedesktopcomputer.Thetransitiontodigital systemsisfarfromcomplete,butithasalreadyhadfar-reachingimpact.Perhapsmostimportantisthe nearlyuniversalusabilityofdigitalinformation.Anyformofexpressionthatcanbequantifiedcanbe turnedintoadigitalbitstream,andcarriedintandemwithanyothertypeofexpression. Computers manipulate data and in this context they can be thought of as the engines necessary to organizeandaccessinformation.Computersarerapidlychangingtheworld—fromtheworkplacetothe home—rangingfromtraditionalstand-alonemainframestoembeddedcomputationaldevices.Almost everypieceofequipmentorappliancecontainsoneormoremicroprocessors. Themarketdemandformicroelectronicshasevolvedfromlargelyamilitary-drivendemandtoonethat isnowlargelyconsumer-driven.Consequently,thedevicefeatureshavealsobeentargetedatconsumer needs, such as low power, low cost, and mass market applications, rather than military needs, such as meetingmilitaryspecificationsforreliabilityandpackaging,specializedapplications,andtheresulting highcostofsuchdevices.Theperformanceofmicroelectronicsismeasured,thus,fromtheviewpointof thetechnologicalaspectsofthedevice,aswellasfromtheviewpointofendusereffectiveness.Thegoalis toenabletheenduserofthedevicestoperformcomplextasksinamoreefficientmannerthanwhatwas previouslypossible. ThisHandbookfocusesonthetechnologicalissueswithinspecificmicroelectronictechnologiesand examines how they affect the push of technology that drives the next generation of microelectronics. Thechaptersdescribethethreeprimaryelementsofmicroelectronicstechnology:materials,devices,and applications. ThisHandbookstrivestogivethereaderabroadunderstandingofthetechnologiesshapingmicroelec- tronicsandhowthesetechnologiesaffecttheendusesofthedevices. v © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Contributors SamuelO.Agbo TomChen JamesE.Goldman CaliforniaPolytechnicState DepartmentofElectrical PurdueUniversity University Engineering WestLafayette,Indiana SanLuisObispo,California ColoradoStateUniversity FortCollins,Colorado MargaretH.Hamilton ConstantineN. HamiltonTechnologies,Inc. Anagnostopoulos JamesG.Cottle Cambridge,Massachusetts MicroelectronicsTechnical Hewlett-Packard Division SanFrancisco,California RangacharKasturi DepartmentofComputer EastmanKodakCompany YarivEphraim Science Rochester,NewYork DepartmentofElectricaland PennsylvaniaStateUniversity PraveenAsthana ComputerEngineering StateCollege,Pennsylvania IBMCorporation GeorgeMasonUniversity SanJose,California Fairfax,Virginia DavidA.Kosiba PennsylvaniaStateUniversity DavidF.Besch EugeneD.Fabricius StateCollege,Pennsylvania EL/EEDepartment UniversityofthePacific Stockton,California CaliforniaPolytechnicState PaulP.K.Lee University MicroelectronicsTechnical BruceW.Bomar SanLuisObispo,California Division DepartmentofElectricaland EastmanKodakCompany ComputerEngineering RobertJ.Feugate,Jr. Rochester,NewYork UniversityofTennesseeSpace CollegeofEngineeringand Institute Technology E´lvioJoa˜oLeonardo Tullahoma,Tennessee UniversityofArizona UniversityofCampinas Flagstaff,Arizona Sa˜oPaulo,Brazil JohnR.Brews UniversityofArizona PaulD.Franzon HonochLev-Ari Tucson,Arizona DepartmentofElectricaland DepartmentofElectricaland ComputerEngineering ComputerEngineering PauloCardieri NorthCarolinaStateUniversity NortheasternUniversity UniversityofCampinas Raleigh,NorthCarolina Boston,Massachusetts Sa˜oPaulo,Brazil SusanA.Garrod Shih-LienLu JonathonA.Chambers DepartmentofElectrical DepartmentofElectronicsand CardiffSchoolofEngineering Engineering ComputerEngineering CardiffUniversity PurdueUniversity OregonStateUniversity Wales,UnitedKingdom WestLafayette,Indiana Corvallis,Oregon vii © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC A´lvaroAugustoMachado WilliamJ.J.Roberts StuartK.Tewksbury Medeiros AtlanticCoastTechnologies, DepartmentofElectricaland UniversityofCampinas Inc. ComputerEngineering Sa˜oPaulo,Brazil SilverSpring,Maryland StevensInstitute ofTechnology VictorMeeldijk Hoboken,NewJersey NetworkProcessingGroup JoyS.Shetler IntelCorporation ComputerEngineering Parsippany,NewJersey Program JerryC.Whitaker CaliforniaPolytechnic AdvanceTelevisionSystems JohnD.Meyer StateUniversity Committee PrintingTechnologies SanLuisObispo, Washington,DC Department California Hewlett-PackardCo. PaloAlto,California BogdanM.Wilamowski SidneySoclof WayneNeedham CaliforniaStateUniversity DepartmentofElectricaland IntelCorporation SanGabriel,California ComputerEngineering Chandler,Arizona AuburnUniversity Auburn,Alabama FabrizioPollara SawasdTantaratana JetPropulsionLab DepartmentofElectricaland CaliforniaInstituteof ComputerEngineering MichelD.Yacoub Technology UniversityofMassachusetts UniversityofCampinas Pasadena,California Amherst,Massachusetts Pathumthaui,Brazil viii © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Contents 1 Semiconductor Materials StuartK.Tewksbury.................................................................1-1 2 ThermalProperties DavidF.Besch......................................................................2-1 3 Semiconductors Sidney Soclof ........................................................................ 3-1 4 Metal-Oxide-SemiconductorField-EffectTransistor JohnR.Brews.......................................................................4-1 5 IntegratedCircuits TomChen...........................................................................5-1 6 IntegratedCircuitDesign SamuelO.AgboandEugeneD.Fabricius............................................6-1 7 Digital Logic Families RobertJ.Feugate,Jr..................................................................7-1 8 Memory Devices Shih-LienLu........................................................................8-1 9 Microprocessors JamesG.Cottle......................................................................9-1 10 D/AandA/DConverters SusanA.Garrod...................................................................10-1 11 Application-SpecificIntegratedCircuits ConstantineN.AnagnostopoulosandPaulP.K.Lee.................................11-1 12 DigitalFilters JonathonA.Chambers,SawasdTantaratanaandBruceW.Bomar.................12-1 13 MultichipModuleTechnology PaulD.Franzon....................................................................13-1 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 14 TestingofIntegratedCircuits WayneNeedham...................................................................14-1 15 SemiconductorFailureModes VictorMeeldijk.....................................................................15-1 16 FundamentalComputerArchitecture JoyS.Shetler.......................................................................16-1 17 SoftwareDesignandDevelopment MargaretH.Hamilton.............................................................17-1 18 NeuralNetworksandFuzzySystems BogdanM.Wilamowski............................................................18-1 19 MachineVision DavidA.KosibaandRangacharKasturi...........................................19-1 20 ABriefSurveyofSpeechEnhancement YarivEphraim,HanochLev-AriandWilliamJ.J.Roberts...........................20-1 21 AdHocNetworks MichelD.Yacoub,PauloCardieri,E´lvioJoa˜oLeonardo, A´lvaroAugustoMachadoMedeiros................................................21-1 22 NetworkCommunication JamesE.Goldman..................................................................22-1 23 PrintingTechnologiesandSystems JohnD.Meyer......................................................................23-1 24 DataStorageSystems JerryC.Whitaker..................................................................24-1 25 OpticalStorageSystems PraveenAsthana...................................................................25-1 26 ErrorCorrection FabrizioPollara....................................................................26-1 x © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 1 Semiconductor Materials 1.1 Introduction......................................... 1-1 1.2 CrystallineStructures ................................ 1-2 BasicSemiconductorMaterialsGroups • Three-Dimensional CrystalLattice • CrystalDirectionsandPlanes 1.3 Energy Bands and Related Semiconductor Parameters. 1-6 ConductionandValenceBand • DirectGapandIndirectGap Semiconductors • EffectiveMassesofCarriers • Intrinsic CarrierDensities • SubstitutionalDopants 1.4 CarrierTransport ....................................1-14 LowFieldMobilities • SaturatedCarrierVelocities 1.5 CrystallineDefects ...................................1-18 PointDefects • LineDefects • StackingFaultsandGrain Boundaries • UnintentionalImpurities • SurfaceDefects:The ReconstructedSurface StuartK.Tewksbury 1.6 Summary............................................1-21 1.1 Introduction Asemiconductormaterialhasaresistivitylyingbetweenthatofaconductorandthatofaninsulator.In contrasttothegranularmaterialsusedforresistors,however,asemiconductorestablishesitsconduction propertiesthroughacomplexquantummechanicalbehaviorwithinaperiodicarrayofsemiconductor atoms,thatis,withinacrystallinestructure.Forappropriateatomicelements,thecrystallinestructure leadstoadisallowedenergybandbetweentheenergylevelofelectronsboundtothecrystal’satomsand theenergylevelofelectronsfreetomovewithinthecrystallinestructure(i.e.,notboundtoanatom). This energy gap fundamentally impacts the mechanisms through which electrons associated with the crystal’satomscanbecomefreeandserveasconductionelectrons.Theresistivityofasemiconductoris proportionaltothefreecarrierdensity,andthatdensitycanbechangedoverawiderangebyreplacinga verysmallportion(about1in106)ofthebasecrystal’satomswithdifferentatomicspecies(dopingatoms). Themajoritycarrierdensityislargelypinnedtothenetdopantimpuritydensity.Byselectivelychanging the crystalline atoms within small regions of the crystal, a vast number of small regions of the crystal canbegivendifferentconductivities.Inaddition,somedopantsestablishtheelectroncarrierdensity(free electrondensity),whereasothersestablishtheholecarrierdensity(holesarethedualofelectronswithin semiconductors). In this manner, different types of semiconductor (n type with much higher electron carrierdensitythantheholedensityand ptypewithmuchhigherholecarrierdensitythantheelectron carrierdensity)canbelocatedinsmallbutcontactingregionswithinthecrystal. Byapplyingelectricfieldsappropriately,smallregionsofthesemiconductorcanbeplacedinastatein whichallofthecarriers(electronandhole)havebeenexpelledbytheelectricfieldandthatelectricfield 1-1 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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