Table Of ContentMicroelectronics
S e c o n d E d i t i o n
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Microelectronics
S e c o n d E d i t i o n
Jerry C. Whitaker
Boca Raton London New York
A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
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© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
This material was previously published in The Electronics Handbook, Second Edition. © CRC Press LLC 2005.
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Microelectronics / [edited by] Jerry C. Whitaker.-- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-3391-1 (alk. paper)
1. Microelectronics. I. Whitaker, Jerry C.
TK7874.M4587 2005
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Preface
Thedisciplineofmicroelectronicshasplayedafundamentalroleinshapingtheelectronicsindustry,as
wellasrelatedindustriesthatrelyonelectroniccomponentsandsubsystems.Inarealmwherechanges
happenfrequentlyanddramatically,theconstantthemesthathavepersistedareminiaturization,increased
speed,reducedpowerconsumption,andreducedcost.Theseeffectshaveresultedinanincreaseddemand
formicroelectronicsinallsectorsofconsumer,industrial,andmilitaryproducts.Advancementsinman-
ufacturinghaveenabledthesedevicestobeproducedinveryhighvolumes,therebyreducingthecostper
device.Inturn,thelowercostfuelsfuturedemandwhichpushestheindustryforfurtherminiaturization
andhighervolumemanufacturing.
Thecombinationofreducedsize,increasedspeed,andincreasedcapacityofmicroelectronicsdevices
was first observed by Gordon E. Moore (the legendary Chairman of Intel)who during the 1960s commented
thatthefeaturesizeofsemiconductortransistorsreducedby10percentperyear.Infact,thereductionhas
beenevenmoredramaticthanthat.Thecapacityofdynamicrandomaccessmemory(DRAM)integrated
circuitshasquadrupledapproximatelyeverythreeyears.Theincreaseddensityoftransistorscontainedin
microelectronicdeviceshasresultedinaphenomenonofvirtually“freecomputingpower.”
Thedigitalrevolutionofthe1980susheredintheso-calledInformationAge,andwithitcamesubstantial
growthofdatarecordingsystems,primarilyassociatedwiththedesktopcomputer.Thetransitiontodigital
systemsisfarfromcomplete,butithasalreadyhadfar-reachingimpact.Perhapsmostimportantisthe
nearlyuniversalusabilityofdigitalinformation.Anyformofexpressionthatcanbequantifiedcanbe
turnedintoadigitalbitstream,andcarriedintandemwithanyothertypeofexpression.
Computers manipulate data and in this context they can be thought of as the engines necessary to
organizeandaccessinformation.Computersarerapidlychangingtheworld—fromtheworkplacetothe
home—rangingfromtraditionalstand-alonemainframestoembeddedcomputationaldevices.Almost
everypieceofequipmentorappliancecontainsoneormoremicroprocessors.
Themarketdemandformicroelectronicshasevolvedfromlargelyamilitary-drivendemandtoonethat
isnowlargelyconsumer-driven.Consequently,thedevicefeatureshavealsobeentargetedatconsumer
needs, such as low power, low cost, and mass market applications, rather than military needs, such as
meetingmilitaryspecificationsforreliabilityandpackaging,specializedapplications,andtheresulting
highcostofsuchdevices.Theperformanceofmicroelectronicsismeasured,thus,fromtheviewpointof
thetechnologicalaspectsofthedevice,aswellasfromtheviewpointofendusereffectiveness.Thegoalis
toenabletheenduserofthedevicestoperformcomplextasksinamoreefficientmannerthanwhatwas
previouslypossible.
ThisHandbookfocusesonthetechnologicalissueswithinspecificmicroelectronictechnologiesand
examines how they affect the push of technology that drives the next generation of microelectronics.
Thechaptersdescribethethreeprimaryelementsofmicroelectronicstechnology:materials,devices,and
applications.
ThisHandbookstrivestogivethereaderabroadunderstandingofthetechnologiesshapingmicroelec-
tronicsandhowthesetechnologiesaffecttheendusesofthedevices.
v
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Contributors
SamuelO.Agbo TomChen JamesE.Goldman
CaliforniaPolytechnicState DepartmentofElectrical PurdueUniversity
University Engineering WestLafayette,Indiana
SanLuisObispo,California ColoradoStateUniversity
FortCollins,Colorado MargaretH.Hamilton
ConstantineN. HamiltonTechnologies,Inc.
Anagnostopoulos JamesG.Cottle Cambridge,Massachusetts
MicroelectronicsTechnical Hewlett-Packard
Division SanFrancisco,California RangacharKasturi
DepartmentofComputer
EastmanKodakCompany
YarivEphraim Science
Rochester,NewYork
DepartmentofElectricaland PennsylvaniaStateUniversity
PraveenAsthana ComputerEngineering StateCollege,Pennsylvania
IBMCorporation GeorgeMasonUniversity
SanJose,California Fairfax,Virginia DavidA.Kosiba
PennsylvaniaStateUniversity
DavidF.Besch EugeneD.Fabricius StateCollege,Pennsylvania
EL/EEDepartment
UniversityofthePacific
Stockton,California CaliforniaPolytechnicState PaulP.K.Lee
University MicroelectronicsTechnical
BruceW.Bomar SanLuisObispo,California Division
DepartmentofElectricaland EastmanKodakCompany
ComputerEngineering RobertJ.Feugate,Jr. Rochester,NewYork
UniversityofTennesseeSpace CollegeofEngineeringand
Institute Technology E´lvioJoa˜oLeonardo
Tullahoma,Tennessee UniversityofArizona UniversityofCampinas
Flagstaff,Arizona Sa˜oPaulo,Brazil
JohnR.Brews
UniversityofArizona PaulD.Franzon HonochLev-Ari
Tucson,Arizona DepartmentofElectricaland DepartmentofElectricaland
ComputerEngineering ComputerEngineering
PauloCardieri NorthCarolinaStateUniversity NortheasternUniversity
UniversityofCampinas Raleigh,NorthCarolina Boston,Massachusetts
Sa˜oPaulo,Brazil
SusanA.Garrod Shih-LienLu
JonathonA.Chambers DepartmentofElectrical DepartmentofElectronicsand
CardiffSchoolofEngineering Engineering ComputerEngineering
CardiffUniversity PurdueUniversity OregonStateUniversity
Wales,UnitedKingdom WestLafayette,Indiana Corvallis,Oregon
vii
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
A´lvaroAugustoMachado WilliamJ.J.Roberts StuartK.Tewksbury
Medeiros AtlanticCoastTechnologies, DepartmentofElectricaland
UniversityofCampinas Inc. ComputerEngineering
Sa˜oPaulo,Brazil SilverSpring,Maryland StevensInstitute
ofTechnology
VictorMeeldijk
Hoboken,NewJersey
NetworkProcessingGroup JoyS.Shetler
IntelCorporation ComputerEngineering
Parsippany,NewJersey Program JerryC.Whitaker
CaliforniaPolytechnic AdvanceTelevisionSystems
JohnD.Meyer
StateUniversity Committee
PrintingTechnologies
SanLuisObispo, Washington,DC
Department
California
Hewlett-PackardCo.
PaloAlto,California BogdanM.Wilamowski
SidneySoclof
WayneNeedham CaliforniaStateUniversity DepartmentofElectricaland
IntelCorporation SanGabriel,California ComputerEngineering
Chandler,Arizona AuburnUniversity
Auburn,Alabama
FabrizioPollara SawasdTantaratana
JetPropulsionLab DepartmentofElectricaland
CaliforniaInstituteof ComputerEngineering MichelD.Yacoub
Technology UniversityofMassachusetts UniversityofCampinas
Pasadena,California Amherst,Massachusetts Pathumthaui,Brazil
viii
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Contents
1 Semiconductor Materials
StuartK.Tewksbury.................................................................1-1
2 ThermalProperties
DavidF.Besch......................................................................2-1
3 Semiconductors
Sidney Soclof ........................................................................ 3-1
4 Metal-Oxide-SemiconductorField-EffectTransistor
JohnR.Brews.......................................................................4-1
5 IntegratedCircuits
TomChen...........................................................................5-1
6 IntegratedCircuitDesign
SamuelO.AgboandEugeneD.Fabricius............................................6-1
7 Digital Logic Families
RobertJ.Feugate,Jr..................................................................7-1
8 Memory Devices
Shih-LienLu........................................................................8-1
9 Microprocessors
JamesG.Cottle......................................................................9-1
10 D/AandA/DConverters
SusanA.Garrod...................................................................10-1
11 Application-SpecificIntegratedCircuits
ConstantineN.AnagnostopoulosandPaulP.K.Lee.................................11-1
12 DigitalFilters
JonathonA.Chambers,SawasdTantaratanaandBruceW.Bomar.................12-1
13 MultichipModuleTechnology
PaulD.Franzon....................................................................13-1
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
14 TestingofIntegratedCircuits
WayneNeedham...................................................................14-1
15 SemiconductorFailureModes
VictorMeeldijk.....................................................................15-1
16 FundamentalComputerArchitecture
JoyS.Shetler.......................................................................16-1
17 SoftwareDesignandDevelopment
MargaretH.Hamilton.............................................................17-1
18 NeuralNetworksandFuzzySystems
BogdanM.Wilamowski............................................................18-1
19 MachineVision
DavidA.KosibaandRangacharKasturi...........................................19-1
20 ABriefSurveyofSpeechEnhancement
YarivEphraim,HanochLev-AriandWilliamJ.J.Roberts...........................20-1
21 AdHocNetworks
MichelD.Yacoub,PauloCardieri,E´lvioJoa˜oLeonardo,
A´lvaroAugustoMachadoMedeiros................................................21-1
22 NetworkCommunication
JamesE.Goldman..................................................................22-1
23 PrintingTechnologiesandSystems
JohnD.Meyer......................................................................23-1
24 DataStorageSystems
JerryC.Whitaker..................................................................24-1
25 OpticalStorageSystems
PraveenAsthana...................................................................25-1
26 ErrorCorrection
FabrizioPollara....................................................................26-1
x
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
1
Semiconductor
Materials
1.1 Introduction......................................... 1-1
1.2 CrystallineStructures ................................ 1-2
BasicSemiconductorMaterialsGroups • Three-Dimensional
CrystalLattice • CrystalDirectionsandPlanes
1.3 Energy Bands and Related Semiconductor Parameters. 1-6
ConductionandValenceBand • DirectGapandIndirectGap
Semiconductors • EffectiveMassesofCarriers • Intrinsic
CarrierDensities • SubstitutionalDopants
1.4 CarrierTransport ....................................1-14
LowFieldMobilities • SaturatedCarrierVelocities
1.5 CrystallineDefects ...................................1-18
PointDefects • LineDefects • StackingFaultsandGrain
Boundaries • UnintentionalImpurities • SurfaceDefects:The
ReconstructedSurface
StuartK.Tewksbury 1.6 Summary............................................1-21
1.1 Introduction
Asemiconductormaterialhasaresistivitylyingbetweenthatofaconductorandthatofaninsulator.In
contrasttothegranularmaterialsusedforresistors,however,asemiconductorestablishesitsconduction
propertiesthroughacomplexquantummechanicalbehaviorwithinaperiodicarrayofsemiconductor
atoms,thatis,withinacrystallinestructure.Forappropriateatomicelements,thecrystallinestructure
leadstoadisallowedenergybandbetweentheenergylevelofelectronsboundtothecrystal’satomsand
theenergylevelofelectronsfreetomovewithinthecrystallinestructure(i.e.,notboundtoanatom).
This energy gap fundamentally impacts the mechanisms through which electrons associated with the
crystal’satomscanbecomefreeandserveasconductionelectrons.Theresistivityofasemiconductoris
proportionaltothefreecarrierdensity,andthatdensitycanbechangedoverawiderangebyreplacinga
verysmallportion(about1in106)ofthebasecrystal’satomswithdifferentatomicspecies(dopingatoms).
Themajoritycarrierdensityislargelypinnedtothenetdopantimpuritydensity.Byselectivelychanging
the crystalline atoms within small regions of the crystal, a vast number of small regions of the crystal
canbegivendifferentconductivities.Inaddition,somedopantsestablishtheelectroncarrierdensity(free
electrondensity),whereasothersestablishtheholecarrierdensity(holesarethedualofelectronswithin
semiconductors). In this manner, different types of semiconductor (n type with much higher electron
carrierdensitythantheholedensityand ptypewithmuchhigherholecarrierdensitythantheelectron
carrierdensity)canbelocatedinsmallbutcontactingregionswithinthecrystal.
Byapplyingelectricfieldsappropriately,smallregionsofthesemiconductorcanbeplacedinastatein
whichallofthecarriers(electronandhole)havebeenexpelledbytheelectricfieldandthatelectricfield
1-1
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Description:When it comes to electronics, demand grows as technology shrinks. From consumer and industrial markets to military and aerospace applications, the call is for more functionality in smaller and smaller devices. Culled from the second edition of the best-selling Electronics Handbook, Microelectronics,
