Micro- and Opto-Electronic Materials and Structures: Physics, Mechanics, Design, Reliability, Packaging: Volume 1 Materials Physics Materials ... Physical Design Reliability and Packaging

1471 Pages·2007·36.82 MB·English

by  Ephraim Suhir

Micro-andOpto-ElectronicMaterialsandStructures:
Physics,Mechanics,Design,Reliability,Packaging
VolumeI
MaterialsPhysics—MaterialsMechanics
Micro- and Opto-Electronic Materials and Structures:
Physics, Mechanics, Design, Reliability, Packaging
Volume I
Materials Physics—Materials Mechanics
Editedby:
E.Suhir
UniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz
SantaCruz,California,USA
UniversityofMaryland
CollegePark,Maryland,USA
Y.C.Lee
UniversityofColorado
Boulder,Colorado,USA
C.P.Wong
GeorgiaTech
Atlanta,Georgia,USA
E.Suhir
UniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz
SantaCruz,California
and
UniversityofMaryland
CollegePark,Maryland
Y.C.Lee
UniversityofColorado
Boulder,Colorado
C.P.Wong
GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology
Atlanta,Georgia
Micro-andOpto-ElectronicMaterialsandStructures:
Physics,Mechanics,Design,Reliability,Packaging
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2006922729
ISBN0-387-27974-1 e-ISBN0-387-32989-7
ISBN978-0-387-27974-9
Printedonacid-freepaper.
©2007SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,Inc.
Allrightsreserved.Thisworkmaynotbetranslatedorcopiedinwholeorinpartwithoutthewrittenpermissionofthepublisher
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Contents
VolumeI
ListofContributors xxvii
Preface xxxi
MaterialsPhysics
Chapter1
PolymerMaterialsCharacterization,ModelingandApplication
L.J.Ernst,K.M.B.Jansen,D.G.Yang,C.van’tHof,H.J.L.Bressers,J.H.J.Janssen
andG.Q.Zhang 3
1.1. Introduction 3
1.2. PolymersinMicroelectronics 4
1.3. BasicsofVisco-ElasticModeling 6
1.3.1. Preliminary:StateDependentViscoelasticity 6
1.3.2. IncrementalRelationship 10
1.3.3. LinearStateDependentViscoelasticity 13
1.3.4. IsotropicMaterialBehavior 14
1.3.5. InterrelationsbetweenPropertyFunctions 15
1.3.6. ElasticApproximations 17
1.4. LinearVisco-ElasticModeling(FullyCuredPolymers) 18
1.4.1. Introduction 18
1.4.2. StaticTestingofRelaxationModuli 18
1.4.3. Time-TemperatureSuperpositionPrinciple 23
1.4.4. StaticTestingofCreepCompliances 24
1.4.5. DynamicTesting 27
1.5. ModelingofCuringPolymers 34
1.5.1. “PartlyStateDependent”Modeling(CuringPolymers) 35
1.5.2. “FullyStateDependent”Modeling(CuringPolymers) 49
1.6. ParameterizedPolymerModeling(PPM) 53
1.6.1. PPMHypotheses 54
1.6.2. ExperimentalCharacterizations 55
1.6.3. PPMModelinginVirtualPrototyping 62
Acknowledgments 62
References 62
vi CONTENTS
Chapter2
Thermo-OpticEffectsinPolymerBraggGratings
AvramBar-Cohen,BongtaeHanandKyoungJoonKim 65
2.1. Introduction 65
2.2. FundamentalsofBraggGratings 67
2.2.1. PhysicalDescriptions 67
2.2.2. BasicOpticalPrinciples 68
2.3. Thermo-OpticalModelingofPolymerFiberBraggGrating 70
2.3.1. HeatGenerationbyIntrinsicAbsorption 70
2.3.2. AnalyticalThermalModelofPFBG 78
2.3.3. FEAThermalModelofPFBG 80
2.3.4. Thermo-OpticalModelofPFBG 80
2.4. Thermo-OpticalBehaviorofPMMA-BasedPFBG 84
2.4.1. DescriptionofaPMMA-BasedPFBGandLightSources 85
2.4.2. PowerVariationAlongthePFBG 86
2.4.3. Thermo-OpticalBehaviorofthePFBG–LEDIllumination 87
2.4.4. Thermo-OpticalBehaviorofthePFBG–SMLDIllumination 92
2.4.5. Thermo-OpticalBehaviorofthePFBGAssociatedwithOtherLightSources 101
2.5. ConcludingRemarks 102
References 102
Appendix2.A:SolutionProceduretoObtaintheOpticalPowerAlongthePFBG 104
Appendix2.B:SolutionProceduretoDeterminetheTemperatureProfileAlongthe
PFBG 106
2.B.1.SolutionProcedureoftheTemperatureProfileAlongthePFBGwiththeLED 106
2.B.2.SolutionProcedureoftheTemperatureProfileAlongthePFBGwiththeSMLD 106
Chapter3
PhotorefractiveMaterialsandDevicesforPassiveComponentsinWDMSystems
ClaireGu,YisiLiu,YuanXu,J.J.Pan,FengqingZhou,LiangDongandHenryHe 111
3.1. Introduction 111
3.2. TunableFlat-ToppedFilter 114
3.2.1. PrincipleofOperation 114
3.2.2. DeviceSimulation 116
3.2.3. DesignforImplementation 117
3.3. WavelengthSelective2×2Switch 117
3.3.1. PrincipleofOperation 118
3.3.2. ExperimentalDemonstration 119
3.3.3. TheoreticalAnalysis 121
3.3.4. OptimizedSwitchDesign 123
3.3.5. Discussion 125
3.4. HighPerformanceDispersionCompensators 126
3.4.1. Multi-ChannelDispersion-SlopeCompensator 126
3.4.2. HighPrecisionFBGFabricationMethodandDispersionManagementFilters 129
3.5. Conclusions 133
References 133
CONTENTS vii
Chapter4
Thin Films for Microelectronics and Photonics: Physics, Mechanics, Characteriza-
tion,andReliability
DavidT.ReadandAlexA.Volinsky 135
4.1. TerminologyandScope 135
4.1.1. ThinFilms 135
4.1.2. Motivation 136
4.1.3. ChapterOutline 136
4.2. ThinFilmStructuresandMaterials 137
4.2.1. Substrates 137
4.2.2. EpitaxialFilms 137
4.2.3. DielectricFilms 140
4.2.4. MetalFilms 141
4.2.5. OrganicandPolymerFilms 142
4.2.6. MEMSStructures 142
4.2.7. IntermediateLayers:Adhesion,Barrier,Buffer,andSeedLayers 142
4.3. Manufacturability/ReliabilityChallenges 143
4.3.1. FilmDepositionandStress 144
4.3.2. GrainStructureandTexture 147
4.3.3. Impurities 151
4.3.4. Dislocations 152
4.3.5. ElectromigrationandVoiding 153
4.3.6. StructuralConsiderations 155
4.3.7. NeedforMechanicalCharacterization 155
4.3.8. PropertiesofInterest 156
4.4. Methodsformechanicalcharacterizationofthinfilms 157
4.4.1. MicrotensileTesting 157
4.4.2. InstrumentedIndentation 159
4.4.3. OtherTechniques 164
4.4.4. AdhesionTests 165
4.5. MaterialsandProperties 172
4.5.1. GrainSizeandStructureSizeEffects 172
4.6. PropertiesofSpecificMaterials 173
4.7. FutureResearch 175
4.7.1. Techniques 175
4.7.2. Properties 175
4.7.3. LengthScale 175
References 176
Chapter5
CarbonNanotubeBasedInterconnectTechnology:OpportunitiesandChallenges
AlanM.CassellandJunLi 181
5.1. Introduction:PhysicalCharacteristicsofCarbonNanotubes 181
5.1.1. Structural 181
5.1.2. Electrical 182
5.1.3. Mechanical 185
5.1.4. Thermal 186
5.2. CNTFabricationTechnologies 186
viii CONTENTS
5.2.1. ChemicalVaporDepositionofCarbonNanotubes 187
5.2.2. ProcessIntegrationandDevelopment 189
5.3. CarbonNanotubesasInterconnects 191
5.3.1. LimitationsoftheCurrentTechnology 191
5.3.2. Architecture,GeometryandPerformancePotentialUsingCarbonNanotubes 191
5.4. Design,ManufactureandReliability 194
5.4.1. MicrostructuralAttributesandEffectsonElectricalCharacteristics 194
5.4.2. InterfacialContactMaterials 196
5.4.3. End-contactedMetal–CNTJunction 198
5.4.4. ThermalStressCharacteristics 198
5.4.5. ReliabilityTest 199
5.5. Summary 200
References 200
Chapter6
VirtualThermo-MechanicalPrototypingofMicroelectronicsandMicrosystems
A.Wymysłowski,G.Q.Zhang,W.D.vanDrielandL.J.Ernst 205
6.1. Introduction 205
6.2. PhysicalAspectsforNumericalSimulations 206
6.2.1. NumericalModeling 208
6.2.2. MaterialPropertiesandModels 211
6.2.3. Thermo-MechanicalRelatedFailures 215
6.2.4. DesigningforReliability 219
6.3. MathematicalAspectsofOptimization 225
6.3.1. DesignofExperiments 226
6.3.2. ResponseSurfaceModeling 236
6.3.3. AdvancedApproachtoVirtualPrototyping 242
6.3.4. DesigningforQuality 249
6.4. ApplicationCase 252
6.4.1. ProblemDescription 252
6.4.2. NumericalApproachtoQFNPackageDesign 253
6.5. ConclusionandChallenges 259
6.6. ListofAcronyms 264
Acknowledgments 264
References 264
MaterialsMechanics
Chapter7
FiberOpticsStructuralMechanicsandNano-TechnologyBasedNewGenerationof
FiberCoatings:ReviewandExtension
E.Suhir 269
7.1. Introduction 269
7.2. FiberOpticsStructuralMechanics 270
7.2.1. Review 270
7.3. NewNano-ParticleMaterial(NPM)forMicro-andOpto-ElectronicApplications 273
7.3.1. NewNano-ParticleMaterial(NPM) 273
7.3.2. NPM-BasedOpticalSilicaFibers 274
CONTENTS ix
7.4. Conclusions 277
Acknowledgment 277
References 277
Chapter8
AreaArrayTechnologyforHighReliabilityApplications
RezaGhaffarian 283
8.1. Introduction 283
8.2. AreaArrayPackages(AAPs) 284
8.2.1. AdvantagesofAreaArrayPackages 285
8.2.2. DisadvantagesofAreaArrays 285
8.2.3. AreaArrayTypes 286
8.3. ChipScalePackages(CSPs) 286
8.4. PlasticPackages 288
8.4.1. Background 288
8.4.2. PlasticAreaArrayPackages 288
8.4.3. PlasticPackageAssemblyReliability 289
8.4.4. ReliabilityDataforBGA,FlipChipBGA,andCSP 291
8.5. CeramicPackages 293
8.5.1. Background 293
8.5.2. CeramicPackageAssemblyReliability 294
8.5.3. LiteratureSurveyonCBGA/CCGAAssemblyReliability 295
8.5.4. CBGAThermalCycleTest 297
8.5.5. Comparisonof560I/OPBGAandCCGAassemblyreliability 302
8.5.6. DesignedExperimentforAssembly 305
8.6. Summary 309
8.7. ListofAcronymsandSymbols 310
Acknowledgments 311
References 311
Chapter9
Metallurgical Factors Behind the Reliability of High-Density Lead-Free Intercon-
nections
ToniT.Mattila,TomiT.LaurilaandJormaK.Kivilahti 313
9.1. Introduction 313
9.2. ApproachesandMethods 315
9.2.1. TheFourStepsofTheIterativeApproach 315
9.2.2. TheRoleofDifferentSimulationToolsinReliabilityEngineering 321
9.3. InterconnectionMicrostructuresandTheirEvolution 324
9.3.1. Solidification 324
9.3.2. SolidificationStructureandtheEffectofContactMetalizationDissolution 325
9.3.3. InterfacialReactionsProducts 330
9.3.4. DeformationStructures(DuetoSlipandTwinning) 333
9.3.5. Recovery,RecrystallizationandGrainGrowth 335
9.4. TwoCaseStudiesonReliabilityTesting 335
9.4.1. Case1:ReliabilityofLead-FreeCSPsinThermalcycling 337
9.4.2. Case2:ReliabilityofLead-FreeCSPsinDropTesting 341
9.5. Summary 347
x CONTENTS
Acknowledgments 348
References 348
Chapter10
Metallurgy,ProcessingandReliabilityofLead-FreeSolderJointInterconnections
JinLiang,NaderDariavachandDongkaiShangguan 351
10.1. Introduction 351
10.2. PhysicalMetallurgyofLead-FreeSolderAlloys 352
10.2.1. Tin-LeadSolders 352
10.2.2. Lead-FreeSolderAlloys 353
10.2.3. InterfacialReaction:WettingandSpreading 357
10.2.4. InterfacialIntermetallicFormationandGrowthatLiquid–SolidInterfaces 363
10.3. Lead-FreeSolderingProcessesandCompatibility 377
10.3.1. Lead-FreeSolderingMaterials 378
10.3.2. PCBSubstratesandMetalizationFinishes 380
10.3.3. Lead-FreeSolderingProcesses 381
10.3.4. ComponentsforLead-FreeSoldering 384
10.3.5. Design,EquipmentandCostConsiderations 387
10.4. ReliabilityofPb-FreeSolderInterconnects 388
10.4.1. ReliabilityandFailureDistributionofPb-FreeSolderJoints 388
10.4.2. EffectsofLoadingandThermalConditionsonReliabilityofSolderInterconnection 389
10.4.3. ReliabilityofPb-FreeSolderJointsinComparisontoSn-PbEutecticSolderJoints 395
10.5. GuidelinesforPb-freeSolderingandImprovementinReliability 406
References 406
Chapter11
FatigueLifeAssessmentforLead-FreeSolderJoints
MasakiShiratoriandQiangYu 411
11.1. Introduction 411
11.2. TheIntermetallicCompoundFormedattheInterfaceoftheSolderJointsand
theCu-pad 412
11.3. MechanicalFatigueTestingEquipmentandLoadConditionintheLeadFree
Solder 413
11.4. ResultsofMechanicalFatigueTest 414
11.5. CriticalFatigueStressLimitfortheIntermetallicCompoundLayer 417
11.6. Influence of the Plating Material on the Fatigue Life of Sn-Zn (Sn-9Zn and
Sn-8Zn-3Bi)SolderJoints 424
11.7. Conclusion 426
References 426
Chapter12
Lead-FreeSolderMaterials:DesignForReliability
JohnH.L.Pang 429
12.1. Introduction 429
12.2. MechanicsofSolderMaterials 430
12.2.1. FatigueBehaviorofSolderMaterials 431
12.3. DesignForReliability(DFR) 433