Methods of Environmental Data Analysis PDF
Preview Methods of Environmental Data Analysis
METHODS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DATA ANALYSIS Environmental Management Series Edited by Prof. J. Cairns, Jr, University Center for Environmental and Hazardous Materials Studies. Virginia Polytechnic Institute, USA and Prof. R.M. Harrison, Institute of Public and Environmental Health, University of Birmingham, UK This series hJS been established [0 meet the need for a set of in-depth volumes dealing with environmental issues. particufarly with regard to a sustainable future. The series provides a uniform and quality coverage. building up to form a library of reference books spanning major tOPICS within this diverse tield. The level of presentation is advanced. aimed primarily at a research/consultancy readership. Coverage IOcludes all aspects of environmental science and engineering relevant to evaluation and management of the natural and human-modified environment. as weI! as topics dealing with the political. economic. legal and social conslderariom pertaining to environmental management. Previously published titles in the Series include: Biomonitoring of Trace Aquatic Contaminants D.J.H. Phillips and P.S. Rainbow (1993. reprinted 1994) Global Atmospheric Chemical Change C.N. Hewitt and W.T. Sturges (eds) (1993. reprinted 1995) Atmospheric Acidity: Sources, Consequences and Abatement M. Radojevic and R.M. Harrison (eds) (1992) Methods of Environmental Data Analysis C. N. Hewitt (ed.) (1992, reprinted 1995) Please contact the Publisher or one of the Series' Editors if you would like to contribute to the Series. Dr R.C.J. Carling Prof. Roy Harrison Prof. John Cairns, Jr Senior Editor The Institute of Public and Environmental and Hazardous Environmental Sciences Environmental Health Materials Studies Chapman & Hall School of Chemistry Virginia PolytechniC Institute 2·6 Boundary Row University of Birmingham and State University London Edgbaston Blacksburg SEI SHN. UK BI5 2IT. UK Virginia 24061·0414. USA email: email: email: bob. METHODS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DATA ANALYSIS Edited by C.N. HEWITT INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENTAL & BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, LANCASTER UNIVERSITY, LANCASTER LA1 4YQ, UK CHAPMAN &. HALL London· Glasgow· Weinheim . New York· Tokyo· Melbourne· Madras Published by Chapman & Hall. 2-6 Boundary Row. London SE1 8HN Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEl BHN, UK Blackie Academic & Professional, Wester Cleddens Road, Bishopbriggs, Glasgow G64 2NZ, UK Chapman & Hall GmbH, Pappelallee 3, 69469 Weinbeim, Germany Chapman & Hall USA, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003, USA Chapman & Hall Japan, ITP-Japan, Kyowa Building, 3F, 2-2-1 Hirakawacho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan Chapman & Hall Australia, 102 Dodds Street, South Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia Chapman & Hall India, R. Seshadri, 32 Second Main Road, CIT East, Madras 600 035, India First published by Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd 1992 © 1992 Chapman & Hall Typeset by Alden Multimedia Ltd, Northampton ISBN 0 412 739909 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988. this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means. without the prior permission In writing of the publishers. or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the London address printed on this page. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. A catalogue reGord for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available Special regulations for readers in the USA This publication has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCCl. Salem, Massachusetts. Information can be obtained from the CCC about conditions under which photocopies of parts of this publication may be made in the USA. All other copyright questions, including photocopying outside the USA, should be referred to the publisher. Foreword ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SERIES The current expansion of both public and scientific interest in environ- mental issues has not been accompanied by a commensurate production of adequate books, and those which are available are widely variable in approach and depth. The Environmental Management Series has been established with a view to co-ordinating a series of volumes dealing with each topic within the field in some depth. It is hoped that this Series will provide a uniform and quality coverage and that, over a period of years, it will build up to form a library of reference books covering most of the major topics within this diverse field. It is envisaged that the books will be of single, or dual authorship, or edited volumes as appropriate for respective topics. The level of presentation will be advanced, the books being aimed primarily at a research/consultancy readership. The coverage will include all aspects of environmental science and engineering pertinent to manage- ment and monitoring of the natural and man-modified environment, as well as topics dealing with the political. t:conomic, legal and social con- siderations pertaining to environmental management. J. CAIRNS JNR and R.M. HARRISON Preface In recent years there has been a dramatic increase in public interest and concern for the welfare of the planet and in our desire and need to understand its workings. The commensurate expansion in activity in the environmental sciences has led to a huge increase in the amount of data gathered on a wide range of environmental parameters. The arrival of personal computers in the analytical laboratory, the increasing automation of sampling and analytical devices and the rapid adoption of remote sensing techniques have all aided in this process. Many laboratories and individual scientists now generate thousands of data points every month or year. The assimilation of data of any given variable, whether they be straight- forward, as for example, the annual average concentrations of a pollutant in a single city, or more complex, say spatial and temporal variations of a wide range of physical and chemical parameters at a large number of sites, is itself not useful. Raw numbers convey very little readily assimilated information: it is only when they are analysed, tabulated, displayed and presented can they serve the scientific and management functions for which they were collected. This book aims to aid the active environmental scientist in the process of turning raw data into comprehensible, visually intelligible and useful information. Basic descriptive statistical techniques are first covered, with univariate methods of time series analysis (of much current importance as the implications of increasing carbon dioxide and other trace gas concen- trations in the atmosphere are grappled with), regression, correlation and multivariate factor analysis following. Methods of analysing and deter- mining errors and detection limits are covered in detail, as are graphical methods of exploratory data analysis and the visual representation of VII VllI PREFACE data. The final chapter describes in detail the management procedures necessary to ensure the quality and integrity of environmental chemical data. Numerous examples are used to illustrate the way in which particular techniques can be used. The authors of these chapters have been selected to ensure that an authoritative account of each topic is given. I sincerely hope that a wide range of readers, including undergraduates, researchers, policy makers and administrators, will find the book useful and that it will help scientists produce information, not just numbers. NICK HEWITT Lancaster Contents Foreword . . . . . v Preface . . . . . . Vll List of Contributors. Xl Chapter 1 Descriptive Statistical Techniques A.C. BAJPAI, I.M. CALUS and J.A. FAIRLEY Chapter 2 Environmetric Methods of Nonstationary Time-Series Analysis: Univariate Methods P.c. YOUNG and T. YOUNG. . . . . . . .. 37 Chapter 3 Regression and Correlation A.C. DAVISON. . . . . . . . 79 Chapter 4 Factor and Correlation Analysis of Multivariate Environmental Data P.K. HOPKE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Chapter 5 Errors and Detection Limits M.J. ADAMS ..... . 181 Chapter 6 Visual Representation of Data Including Graphical Exploratory Data Analysis J.M. THOMPSON. . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Chapter 7 Quality Assurance for Environmental Assessment Activities A.A. LIABASTRE, K.A. CARLBERG and M.S. MILLER 259 Index . .. 301 IX List of Contributors M.J. ADAMS School of Applied Sciences, Wolverhampton Polytechnic, Wulfruna Street, Wolverhampton WVIISB, UK A.C. BAJPAI Department of Mathematical Sciences, Loughborough University of Technology, Loughborough LEll 3TU, UK I.M. CALUS 72 Westfield Drive, Loughborough LEll 3QL, UK K.A. CARLBERG 29 Hoffman Place. Belle Mead, New Jersey 08502, USA A.C. DAVISON Department of Statistics, University of Oxford, 1 South Parks Road, Oxford OXI 3TG, UK J.A. FAIRLEY Department of Mathematical Sciences, Loughborough University of Technology, Loughborough LEll 3TU, UK A.A. LIABASTRE Environmental Laboratory Division, US Army Environmental Hygiene Activity-South, Building 180, Fort McPherson, Georgia 30330-5000, USA M.S. MILLER Automated Compliance Systems, 673 Emory Valley Road, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, USA xi
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