Metallurgy for Physicists and Engineers-Fundamentals, Applications, and Calculations

381 Pages·2020·15.341 MB·\381

by  Zainul Huda (Author)

Metallurgy for Physicists

and Engineers

Metallurgy for Physicists

and Engineers

Fundamentals, Applications,

and Calculations

Authored by

Zainul Huda
CRC Press
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Contents

Preface......................................................................................................................xv

Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................xvii

Author Biography ....................................................................................................xix

PART I Fundamentals of Metallurgy
Chapter 1 Introduction ..........................................................................................3

1.1 Metallurgy, Materials, and Engineer .........................................3

1.2 Engineering Materials ...............................................................4

1.2.1 Classification of Materials ............................................4

1.2.2 Metals/Alloys ...............................................................4

1.2.3 Ceramics/Glasses .........................................................6

1.2.4 Polymers/Plastics .........................................................6

1.2.5 Composites ...................................................................6

1.3 Metallurgy—Classification and the Manufacturing

Processes ...................................................................................7

1.3.1 Classification of Metallurgy .........................................7

1.3.2 Extractive Metallurgy...................................................7

1.3.3 Physical Metallurgy ......................................................7

1.3.4 Mechanical Metallurgy ................................................8

1.3.5 Manufacturing Processes in Metallurgy ......................8

Questions ............................................................................................ 10

References .......................................................................................... 11

Chapter 2 Crystalline Structure of Metals .......................................................... 13

2.1 Amorphous and Crystalline Materials . ................................... 13

2.1.1 Amorphous Solids ......................................................13

2.1.2 Crystalline Solids ....................................................... 13

2.2 Crystal Systems—Structures and Properties .......................... 14

2.2.1 Unit Cell, Crystal Lattice, and Crystal Systems ........ 14

2.2.2 The Simple Cubic Crystal Structure .......................... 15

2.2.3 Crystal-Structure Properties ...................................... 16

2.3 Crystal Structures in Metals .................................................... 16

2.3.1 Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure ..................... 17

2.3.2 Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Structure ....................... 17

2.3.3 Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) Crystal Structure .... 18

2.3.4 Computing Theoretical Density of a Metal ................ 19

2.4 Miller Indices .......................................................................... 20

2.5 Crystallographic Directions ....................................................20

v
vi Contents
2.5.1 Procedure to Find Miller Indices for a

Crystallographic Direction .........................................20

2.5.2 Industrial Applications of Crystallographic

Directions ................................................................... 21

2.6 Crystallographic Planes ...........................................................21

2.6.1 Procedure to Find Miller Indices for a

Crystallographic Plane ............................................... 21

2.6.2 Industrial Applications of Crystallographic

Planes ................................................................................ 22

2.7 Linear and Planar Atomic Densities .......................................22

2.8 X-Ray Diffraction—Bragg’s Law ...........................................23

2.9 Indexing a Diffraction Pattern for Cubic Crystals ..................25

2.10 Crystallites—Scherrer’s Formula ............................................26

2.11 Calculations—Examples of Crystalline Structures

of Solids ...................................................................................26

Questions and Problems .....................................................................38

References ..........................................................................................39

Chapter 3 Crystal Imperfections and Deformation ............................................. 41

3.1 Real Crystals and Crystal Defects ........................................... 41

3.2 Point Defects and Alloy Formation .........................................41

3.2.1 What Is a Point Defect? ..............................................41

3.2.2 Vacancy ......................................................................42

3.2.3 Interstitial and Substitutional Point Defects ............... 43

3.2.4 Solid-Solution Alloys ................................................. 43

3.2.5 Alloy Formation—Hume-Rothery Rules ................... 43

3.3 Dislocations .............................................................................44

3.3.1 What Is a Dislocation? ................................................44

3.3.2 Edge Dislocation and Screw Dislocation ...................45

3.3.3 Dislocation Movement—Deformation by Slip ...........45

3.4 Slip Systems.............................................................................46

3.5 Deformation in Single Crystals—Schmid’s Law ....................48

3.6 Plastic Deformation—Cold Working/Rolling .........................50

3.7 Calculations—Examples on Crystal Imperfections

and Deformation ......................................................................51

Questions and Problems .....................................................................56

References .......................................................................................... 57

Chapter 4 Diffusion and Applications ................................................................59

4.1 Introduction to Diffusion and Its Applications........................59

4.1.1 What Is Diffusion? .....................................................59

4.1.2 Industrial Applications of Diffusion ..........................59

4.2 Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion ........................................60

4.3 Mechanisms and Types of Diffusion ....................................... 61
Contents vii
4.3.1 Diffusion Mechanisms ............................................... 61

4.3.2 Types of Diffusion ......................................................62

4.4 Steady-State Diffusion—Fick’s First Law ..............................62

4.5 Non-Steady State Diffusion—Fick’s Second Law ..................63

4.6 Applications of Fick’s Second Law of Diffusion ....................66

4.7 Thermally Activated Diffusion—Arrhenius Law ...................67

4.8 Calculations—Examples on Diffusion and Its

Applications .............................................................................69

Questions and Problems .....................................................................74

References .......................................................................................... 76

PART II P hysical Metallurgy—Microstructural
Developments
Chapter 5 Metallography and Material Characterization ...................................79

5.1 Evolution of Grained Microstructure ......................................79

5.2 Metallography—Metallographic Examination of

Microstructure .........................................................................80

5.2.1 Metallography and Its Importance .............................80

5.2.2 Metallographic Specimen Preparation .......................80

5.3 Microscopy ..............................................................................84

5.3.1 Optical Microscopy (OM) ..........................................85

5.3.1.1 The OM Equipment .......................................85

5.3.1.2 Imaging in Optical Microscopy ....................85

5.3.1.3 Resolution of an Optical Microscope ............86

5.3.2 Electron Microscopy ..................................................86

5.3.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy .....................86

5.3.2.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy ...............88

5.4 Material Analysis and Specification of Composition of an

Alloy ........................................................................................89

5.4.1 Material Analysis/Characterization Tools ..................89

5.4.2 Specification of Composition in Atom Percent ..........90

5.4.3 Specification of Average Density of an Alloy ............91

5.5 Quantitative Metallography—Grain Size Measurement ......... 91

5.5.1 Manual Quantitative Metallography ..........................92

5.5.1.1 T he Chart Method of Manual

Quantitative Metallography ...........................92

5.5.1.2 The Counting Method of Manual

Quantitative Metallography ...........................92

5.5.2 Computer-Aided Quantitative Metallography—

Computerized Image Analysis ...................................93

5.6 Calculations—Examples on Metallography and

Materials Characterization ......................................................94

Questions and Problems ...................................................................102

References ........................................................................................ 104
viii Contents
Chapter 6 Phase Diagrams ................................................................................ 105

6.1 The Basis of Phase Diagrams ................................................ 105

6.1.1 Gibbs’s Phase Rule ................................................... 105

6.1.2 What Is a Phase Diagram? ....................................... 105

6.2 Phase Transformation Reactions and Classification of

Phase Diagrams .....................................................................105

6.2.1 Phase Transformation Reactions ..............................105

6.2.2 Classification of Phase Diagrams ............................. 107

6.2.3 Unary Phase Diagrams ............................................. 107

6.3 Binary Phase Diagrams .........................................................107

6.3.1 Basics of Binary Phase Diagrams ............................ 107

6.3.2 Isomorphous Binary Phase Diagrams ...................... 108

6.3.3 Mathematical Models for Binary Systems ...............109

6.4 Binary Phase Diagrams Involving Eutectic Reactions .......... 110

6.4.1 Eutectic Binary Phase Diagrams With

Complete Insolubility in Solid State ........................ 110

6.4.2 Eutectic Binary Phase Diagrams With Partial

Solid Solubility ......................................................... 111

6.5 Binary Phase Diagrams Involving Peritectic/Eutectoid

Reactions ............................................................................... 113

6.6 Binary Complex Phase Diagrams ......................................... 114

6.7 Ternary Phase Diagrams ....................................................... 114

6.8 Calculations—Examples in Phase Diagrams ........................ 115

Questions and Problems ...................................................................129

References ........................................................................................ 131

Chapter 7 Phase Transformations and Kinetics ................................................133

7.1 Phase Transformation and Its Types ...................................... 133

7.2 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations ................................ 133

7.2.1 The Two Stages of Phase Transformation—

Nucleation and Growth............................................ 133

7.2.2 Nucleation ................................................................. 133

7.2.2.1 Nucleation and Its Types ............................. 133

7.2.2.2 Homogeneous Nucleation ............................134

7.2.2.3 Heterogeneous Nucleation ...........................138

7.3 Growth and Kinetics ............................................................. 138

7.4 Kinetics of Solid-State Phase Transformation ...................... 139

7.5 Microstructural Changes in Fe-C Alloys—Eutectoid

Reaction in Steel .................................................................... 140

7.5.1 S-shape Curves for Eutectoid Reaction .................... 140

7.5.2 Pearlite: A Quantitative Analysis ............................. 141

7.5.3 Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT)

Diagram .................................................................... 142

7.5.4 Bainite and Martensite ............................................. 144

7.6 Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) Diagrams ......... 145
Contents ix
7.7 Calculations—Examples on Phase Transformations

and Kinetics ...........................................................................146

Questions and Problems ...................................................................153

References ........................................................................................ 154

PART III Engineering/Mechanical Metallurgy
and Design
Chapter 8 Mechanical Properties of Metals ..................................................... 159

8.1 Material Processing and Mechanical Properties ................... 159

8.2 Stress and Strain ....................................................................159

8.3 Tensile Testing and Tensile Properties .................................. 162

8.3.1 Tensile Testing .......................................................... 162

8.3.2 Tensile Mechanical Properties ................................. 164

8.4 Elastic Properties: Young’s Modulus, Poisson’s Ratio,

and Resilience........................................................................ 166

8.5 Hardness ................................................................................ 167

8.5.1 Hardness and Its Testing .......................................... 167

8.5.2 Brinell Hardness Test ............................................... 167

8.5.3 Rockwell Hardness Test ........................................... 169

8.5.4 Vickers Hardness Test .............................................. 170

8.5.5 Knoop Hardness Test ............................................... 171

8.5.6 Microhardness Test .................................................. 171

8.5.7 Hardness Conversion ................................................ 172

8.6 Impact Toughness—Impact Energy...................................... 172

8.7 Fatigue and Creep Properties ................................................ 173

8.8 Calculations—Examples on Mechanical Properties

of Metals ................................................................................ 173

Questions and Problems ................................................................... 181

References ........................................................................................ 182

Chapter 9 Strengthening Mechanisms in Metals .............................................. 183

9.1 Dislocation Movement and Strengthening Mechanisms .......183

9.2 Solid-Solution Strengthening ................................................ 183

9.3 Grain-Boundary Strengthening—Hall-Petch Relationship......185

9.4 Strain Hardening ................................................................... 187

9.5 Precipitation Strengthening ...................................................189

9.6 Dispersion Strengthening—Mechanical Alloying ................ 190

9.7 Calculations—Examples on Strengthening Mechanisms

in Metals ................................................................................ 191

Questions and Problems ...................................................................198

References ........................................................................................ 199