Metal Cutting Theory and Practice

956 Pages·2016·16.31 MB·English

by  David A. Stephenson

Metal Cutting Theory
and Practice
Third Edition
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Metal Cutting Theory
and Practice
Third Edition
David A. Stephenson
John S. Agapiou
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Contents
Preface to the Third Edition ............................................................................................................xv
Preface to the Second Edition ........................................................................................................xvii
Preface to the First Edition .............................................................................................................xix
Authors ............................................................................................................................................xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................1
1.1 Scope of the Subject ..........................................................................................1
1.2 Historical Development .....................................................................................1
1.2.1 Ancient and Medieval Predecessors ....................................................1
1.2.2 Canon Boring .......................................................................................4
1.2.3 The Industrial Revolution and the Steam Engine ................................7
1.2.4 Nineteenth-Century Quantity Production Industries ......................... 10
1.2.5 Early Scientifc Studies ...................................................................... 15
1.2.6 Twentieth-Century Mass Production .................................................. 17
1.2.7 Numerical Control ..............................................................................20
References ..................................................................................................................22
Chapter 2 Metal-Cutting Operations ..........................................................................................27
2.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................27
2.2 Turning ............................................................................................................27
2.2.1 Hard Turning ......................................................................................29
2.3 Boring ..............................................................................................................30
2.4 Drilling ............................................................................................................ 31
2.4.1 Deep-Hole Drilling ............................................................................34
2.4.2 Microdrilling ...................................................................................... 37
2.5 Reaming........................................................................................................... 37
2.6 Milling ............................................................................................................. 37
2.7 Planing and Shaping ........................................................................................44
2.8 Broaching ........................................................................................................ 45
2.9 Tapping and Threading ...................................................................................46
2.10 Grinding and Related Abrasive Processes ...................................................... 56
2.11 Roller Burnishing ............................................................................................64
2.12 Deburring ........................................................................................................65
2.13 Examples .........................................................................................................66
2.14 Problems .......................................................................................................... 78
References ..................................................................................................................80
Chapter 3 Machine Tools ............................................................................................................ 83
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 83
3.2 Production Machine Tools ............................................................................... 83
3.3 CNC Machine Tools and CNC-Based Manufacturing Systems ......................88
3.3.1 General ...............................................................................................88
3.3.2 Types of CNC Machines .................................................................... 89
3.3.3 CNC-Based Manufacturing Systems .................................................99
v
vi Contents
3.4 Machine Tool Structures ............................................................................... 108
3.5 Slides and Guideways .................................................................................... 119
3.6 Axis Drives .................................................................................................... 122
3.7 Spindles ......................................................................................................... 127
3.8 Coolant Systems ............................................................................................ 141
3.9 Tool Changing Systems ................................................................................. 142
3.10 Pallets ............................................................................................................ 145
3.11 Energy Use in CNC-Machining Centers ....................................................... 146
3.12 Examples ....................................................................................................... 147
References ................................................................................................................ 150
Chapter 4 Cutting Tools ............................................................................................................ 159
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 159
4.2 Cutting-Tool Materials ................................................................................... 159
4.2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 159
4.2.2 Material Properties ........................................................................... 159
4.2.2.1 High-Speed Steel (HSS) and Related Materials ............... 163
4.2.2.2 Sintered Tungsten Carbide (WC) ...................................... 164
4.2.2.3 Cermets ............................................................................. 166
4.2.2.4 Ceramics ........................................................................... 167
4.2.2.5 Polycrystalline Tools......................................................... 169
4.2.2.6 Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (PCBN) .................. 170
4.2.2.7 Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) ....................................... 171
4.3 Tool Coatings ................................................................................................. 172
4.3.1 Coating Methods .............................................................................. 172
4.3.2 Conventional Coating Materials ....................................................... 174
4.3.3 Diamond and CBN Coatings ............................................................ 177
4.4 Basic Types of Cutting Tools ......................................................................... 178
4.5 Turning Tools ................................................................................................. 179
4.5.1 Indexable Inserts .............................................................................. 179
4.5.2 Groove Geometry (Chip Breaker) .................................................... 183
4.5.3 Edge Preparations ............................................................................ 183
4.5.4 Wiper Geometry ............................................................................... 185
4.5.5 Insert Clamping Methods ................................................................. 185
4.5.6 Tool Angles ...................................................................................... 186
4.5.7 Thread Turning Tools ....................................................................... 187
4.5.8 Grooving and Cutoff Tools............................................................... 188
4.5.9 Form Tools ....................................................................................... 189
4.6 Boring Tools .................................................................................................. 190
4.6.1 Single Point Boring Tools................................................................. 190
4.6.2 Multipoint Boring Tools ................................................................... 196
4.7 Milling Tools ................................................................................................. 196
4.7.1 Types of Milling Cutters .................................................................. 197
4.7.2 Cutter Design....................................................................................200
4.7.3 Milling Inserts and Edge Clamping Methods ..................................208
4.8 Drilling Tools ................................................................................................209
4.8.1 Twist Drill Structural Properties ...................................................... 211
4.8.2 Twist Drill Point Geometries ........................................................... 214
4.8.3 Spade and Indexable Drills .............................................................. 223
Contents vii
4.8.4 Subland and Step Drills .................................................................... 227
4.8.5 Multi-Tip (Deep Hole) Drills ............................................................228
4.8.6 Other Types of Drills........................................................................ 233
4.8.7 Chip Removal ...................................................................................234
4.8.8 Drill Life and Accuracy ................................................................... 237
4.8.9 Hole Deburring Tools ....................................................................... 239
4.9 Reamers .........................................................................................................242
4.9.1 Types of Reamers ............................................................................. 243
4.9.2 Reamer Geometry ............................................................................244
4.10 Threading Tools .............................................................................................246
4.10.1 Taps ..................................................................................................246
4.10.2 Thread Mills ..................................................................................... 253
4.11 Grinding Wheels ........................................................................................... 255
4.11.1 Abrasives .......................................................................................... 255
4.11.2 Bonds ................................................................................................ 257
4.11.3 Wheel Grades and Grit Sizes ........................................................... 257
4.11.4 Operational Factors .......................................................................... 259
4.12 Microsizing and Honing Tools ......................................................................260
4.13 Burnishing Tools ........................................................................................... 263
4.14 Examples ....................................................................................................... 263
4.15 Problems ........................................................................................................ 274
References ................................................................................................................ 275
Chapter 5 Toolholders and Workholders .................................................................................. 281
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 281
5.2 Toolholding Systems ..................................................................................... 281
5.2.1 General ............................................................................................. 281
5.2.2 Modular and Quick-Change Toolholding Systems ..........................284
5.3 Toolholder/Spindle Connections ...................................................................290
5.3.1 General .............................................................................................290
5.3.2 Conventional Tapered “CAT-V” Connection ................................... 295
5.3.3 Face-Contact CAT-V Interfaces .......................................................303
5.3.4 HSK Interface ...................................................................................309
5.3.5 Proprietary Interfaces ....................................................................... 314
5.3.6 Quick-Change Interfaces (Toolholders/Adapters) ............................ 316
5.3.7 Toolholders for Turning Machines ................................................... 322
5.3.8 Evaluation and Comparison of Toolholder/Spindle Interface .......... 323
5.4 Cutting Tool Clamping Systems .................................................................... 328
5.4.1 Milling Cutter Drives ....................................................................... 328
5.4.2 Side-Lock-Type Chucks .................................................................... 330
5.4.3 Collet Chucks ................................................................................... 331
5.4.4 Hydraulic Chucks ............................................................................. 336
5.4.5 Milling Chucks ................................................................................. 338
5.4.6 Shrink-Fit Chucks............................................................................. 339
5.4.7 Proprietary Chucks........................................................................... 341
5.4.8 Tapping Attachments .......................................................................344
5.4.9 Reaming Attachments ...................................................................... 345
5.4.10 Comparison of Cutting Tool Clamping Systems.............................. 345
5.5 Balancing Requirements for Toolholders ...................................................... 358
viii Contents
5.6 Fixtures .......................................................................................................... 362
5.6.1 General ............................................................................................. 362
5.6.2 Types of Fixtures ..............................................................................364
5.6.3 Fixture Analysis ............................................................................... 370
5.7 Examples ....................................................................................................... 373
5.8 Problems ........................................................................................................ 387
References ................................................................................................................ 387
Chapter 6 Mechanics of Cutting ............................................................................................... 393
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 393
6.2 Measurement of Cutting Forces and Chip Thickness ................................... 393
6.3 Force Components ......................................................................................... 395
6.4 Empirical Force Models ................................................................................ 401
6.5 Specifc Cutting Power ..................................................................................402
6.6 Chip Formation and Primary Plastic Deformation .......................................404
6.7 Tool–Chip Friction and Secondary Deformation .......................................... 412
6.8 Shear Plane and Slip-Line Theories for Continuous Chip Formation .......... 416
6.9 Shear Plane Models for Oblique Cutting ....................................................... 420
6.10 Shear Zone Models ........................................................................................ 422
6.11 Minimum Work and Uniqueness Assumptions ............................................. 425
6.12 Finite Element Models ................................................................................... 426
6.13 Discontinuous Chip Formation ..................................................................... 431
6.14 Built-Up Edge Formation .............................................................................. 434
6.15 Examples ....................................................................................................... 436
6.16 Problems ........................................................................................................ 438
References ................................................................................................................ 439
Chapter 7 Cutting Temperatures ...............................................................................................449
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................449
7.2 Measurement of Cutting Temperatures .........................................................449
7.2.1 Tool–Work Thermocouple Method and Related Techniques ...........449
7.2.2 Conventional Thermocouple Methods ............................................. 453
7.2.3 Metallurgical Methods ..................................................................... 454
7.2.4 Infrared Methods .............................................................................. 454
7.2.5 Other Methods .................................................................................. 456
7.3 Factors Affecting Cutting Temperatures ....................................................... 456
7.4 Analytical Models for Steady-State Temperatures ........................................ 457
7.5 Finite Element and Other Numerical Models ...............................................463
7.6 Temperatures in Interrupted Cutting ............................................................. 467
7.7 Temperatures in Drilling ...............................................................................469
7.8 Thermal Expansion ....................................................................................... 471
7.9 Examples ....................................................................................................... 472
7.10 Problem .......................................................................................................... 476
References ................................................................................................................ 476
Chapter 8 Machining Process Analysis .................................................................................... 483
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 483
8.2 Turning ..........................................................................................................484
8.3 Boring ............................................................................................................486
Contents ix
8.4 Milling .........................................................................................................487
8.4.1 Face Milling ................................................................................ 489
8.4.2 End Milling .................................................................................490
8.4.3 Ball End Milling .......................................................................... 494
8.5 Drilling ........................................................................................................ 494
8.6 Force Equations and Baseline Data .............................................................502
8.7 Process Simulation Application Examples ..................................................507
8.8 Finite Element Analysis for Clamping, Fixturing, and Workpiece
Distortion Applications ............................................................................... 512
8.9 Finite Element Application Examples ......................................................... 514
8.10 Examples ..................................................................................................... 519
8.11 Problems ...................................................................................................... 524
References ................................................................................................................ 525
Chapter 9 Tool Wear and Tool Life........................................................................................... 529
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 529
9.2 Types of Tool Wear ...................................................................................... 530
9.3 Measurement of Tool Wear ......................................................................... 537
9.4 Tool Wear Mechanisms ............................................................................... 538
9.5 Tool Wear: Material Considerations ............................................................ 541
9.6 Tool Life Testing ..........................................................................................548
9.7 Tool Life Equations ..................................................................................... 549
9.8 Prediction of Tool Wear Rates ..................................................................... 551
9.9 Tool Fracture and Edge Chipping ............................................................... 554
9.10 Drill Wear and Breakage ............................................................................. 556
9.11 Thermal Cracking and Tool Fracture in Milling ........................................560
9.12 Tool Wear Monitoring ................................................................................. 561
9.13 Examples ..................................................................................................... 562
9.14 Problems ...................................................................................................... 568
References ................................................................................................................ 569
Chapter 10 Surface Finish, Integrity, and Flatness ..................................................................... 575
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 575
10.2 Measurement of Surface Finish ................................................................... 576
10.2.1 Stylus Measurements ................................................................... 576
10.2.2 Other Methods ............................................................................. 581
10.3 Surface Finish in Turning and Boring ......................................................... 582
10.4 Surface Finish in Milling ............................................................................ 586
10.5 Surface Finish in Drilling and Reaming ..................................................... 590
10.6 Surface Finish in Grinding .......................................................................... 590
10.7 Residual Stresses in Machined Surfaces ..................................................... 592
10.8 White Layer Formation ............................................................................... 594
10.9 Surface Burning in Grinding ....................................................................... 595
10.10 Measurement of Surface Flatness ............................................................... 597
10.11 Surface Flatness Compensation in Face Milling......................................... 599
10.11.1 Tool Path Direction Compensation .............................................600
10.11.2 Depth of Cut Compensation ........................................................603
10.11.3 Tool Feed Compensation .............................................................605