Mathematics (4 volume set) PDF
Preview Mathematics (4 volume set)
mathematics EDITORIAL BOARD Editor in Chief Barry Max Brandenberger, Jr. Curriculum and Instruction Consultant, Cedar Park, Texas Associate Editor Lucia Romberg McKay, Ph.D. Mathematics Education Consultant, Port Aransas, Texas Consultants L. Ray Carry, Ph.D. Pamela D. Garner EDITORIAL AND PRODUCTION STAFF Cindy Clendenon, Project Editor Linda Hubbard, Editorial Director Betz Des Chenes, Managing Editor Alja Collar, Kathleen Edgar, Monica Hubbard, Gloria Lam, Kristin May, Mark Mikula, Kate Millson, Nicole Watkins, Contributing Editors Michelle DiMercurio, Senior Art Director Rita Wimberley, Buyer Bill Atkins, Phil Koth, Proofreaders Lynne Maday, Indexer Barbara J. Yarrow, Manager, Imaging and Multimedia Content Robyn V. Young, Project Manager, Imaging and Multimedia Content Pam A. Reed, Imaging Coordinator Randy Bassett, Imaging Supervisor Leitha Etheridge-Sims, Image Cataloger Maria L. Franklin, Permissions Manager Lori Hines, Permissions Assistant Consulting School Douglas Middle School, Box Elder, South Dakota Teacher: Kelly Lane Macmillan Reference USA Elly Dickason, Publisher Hélène G. Potter, Editor in Chief i i mathematics VOL U M E 1 Ab–Cy Barry Max Brandenberger, Jr., Editor in Chief Copyright © 2002 by Macmillan Reference USA, an imprint of the Gale Group All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo- copying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, with- out permission in writing from the Publisher. Macmillan Reference USA Macmillan Reference USA 300 Park Avenue South 27500 Drake Rd. New York, NY 10010 Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mathematics / Barry Max Brandenberger, Jr., editor in chief. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-02-865561-3 (set : hardcover : alk. paper) - ISBN 0-02-865562-1 (v. 1 : alk. paper) ISBN 0-02-865563-X (v. 2 : alk. paper) - ISBN 0-02-865564-8 (v. 3 : alk. paper) - ISBN 0-02-865565-6 (v. 4 : alk. paper) 1. Mathematics-Juvenile literature. [1. Mathematics.] I. Brandenberger, Barry Max, 1971- QA40.5 .M38 2002 510-dc21 00-045593 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Preface Mathematics has been defined as the “universal language of numbers,” a language whose basic principles remain the same for all users. Many rou- tine activities, from balancing a checkbook to measuring ingredients for a recipe, require a certain familiarity with mathematical concepts and appli- cations. In Macmillan’s Mathematics encyclopedia, users will learn more about the function of mathematics in everyday life, as well as its role as a tool for measurement, data analysis, and technological development. Inter- disciplinary in scope, the encyclopedia provides students with a clear and comprehensive introduction to this vast topic through nearly three hundred entries commissioned especially for the set. A Broader Look at Mathematics For many people, mathematics and its basic disciplines—such as alge- bra, geometry, and trigonometry—are subjects of fear and dread. The goal of the Mathematics encyclopedia is to make these topics more accessible and interesting to students and the general user. Readers will learn that mathe- matics is much more than numbers alone—it is also an integral part of his- tory and culture. Biographical entries highlight mathematicians who have made significant contributions to the field. Over thirty career-related arti- cles offer examples of mathematics “on the job,” whether it’s a nutritionist calculating dietary needs or a photographer compensating for low-light con- ditions. Entries on applications explore the role of mathematics in our mod- ern world, from everyday conveniences to global communication methods and a multitude of scientific and technological advances. Organization of the Material The authors who contributed entries to Mathematics bring a variety of expertise to the subject, and include members of academic institutions, math educators, and curriculum specialists. Contributors used their subject knowl- edge to write entries that are authoritative and up-to-date, but free of overly technological terms or scientific jargon. Many entries are illustrated, and numerous equations, tables, figures, and sidebars help illuminate the text. Unfamiliar terms and concepts are highlighted and defined in the margin, while cross-references direct users to articles of related interest. Most en- tries feature a selected bibliography, including Internet resources. Each vol- ume includes a topical outline, glossary, and index, with a cumulative index to the entire set appearing in volume 4. Acknowledgments and Thanks I would like to acknowledge the support of my editorial advisors, Pam Garner and Dr. Ray Carry, for their valuable contributions to the scope and v Preface overall design of this project. I would also like to thank Hélène Potter and Cindy Clendenon for their unending patience and guidance in making the initial ideas for this encyclopedia into a real product. Finally, I would like to thank my associate editor, Dr. Lucia McKay, for her remarkable mathe- matical and literary mind, which remained sharp and focused even after re- viewing hundreds of articles. I cannot thank her enough. Barry Max Brandenberger, Jr. v i Contributors Leslie Aspinwall Brook E. Hall Dana Mackenzie Florida State University California State University, Santa Cruz, California Tallahassee, Florida Sacramento Teresa D. Magnus William Arthur Atkins Sacramento, California Rivier College Galesburg, Illinois Bob Horton Nashua, New Hampshire Arth Uunri vJe. rBsiatyr ooof dIlylinois at Urbana- Clemmssoonn U, Sniovuetrhsi tCy arolina KelAlyu Jst. inM, aTretxinason Champaign Dick Jardine Champaign, Illinois Keene State College Nelson Maylone Don Barry Keene, New Hampshire Eastern Michigan University Phillips Academy Iris DeLoach Johnson Ypsilanti, Michigan Andover, Massachusetts Miami University Lucia McKay Darin Beigie Oxford, Ohio Port Aransas, Texas Harvard-Westlake Middle School Arthur V. Johnson II Minerva Mercado-Feliciano Los Angeles, California Boston University Indiana Department of Max Brandenberger Boston, Massachusetts Environmental Management Cedar Park, Texas Loretta Anne Kelley Indianapolis, Indiana Óscar Chávez San Francisco, California Michelle R. Michael U Conliuvemrsbitiya ,o Mf Missisosouurrii Naomi Klarreich Austin, Texas Cleveland, Ohio Susan Strain Mockert Mic Uhnaeivl eCrsoithy eonf Aizu Philip Edward Koth Indianapolis, Indiana Aizu-Wakamatsu, Japan East Peoria, Illinois J. William Moncrief Curtis Cooper Jane Keiser Krumpe Brevard College Central Missouri State Universitiy Miami University Brevard, North Carolina Warrensburg, Missouri Oxford, Ohio Barbara M. Moskal Paula C. Davis Harry J. Kuhman Colorado School of Mines Grand Forks, North Dakota Apex, North Carolina Golden, Colorado John J. Edgell, Jr. Rafiq Ladhani Phillip Nissen Southwest Texas State University Staten Island, New York Riverwood High School and Georgia San Marcos, Texas Frederick Landwehr State University Thomas G. Edwards Austin, Texas Atlanta, Georgia Wayne State University Randy Lattimore Michael J. O’Neal Detroit, Michigan Wayne State University Moscow, Idaho Demetria Ennis-Cole Detroit, Michigan Michael Ota University of North Texas Denton, Texas A. Darien Lauten Austin, Texas Bar Ut Gnieverstisty of Wyoming RNiavsiehru Ca,o Nlleegwe Hampshire DenAiusest iPnr, eTnedxearsgast Laramie, Wyoming Jacq Tueemlipnle ULenoivnearrsidty Robert J. Quinn Albert Goetz Philadelphia, Pennsylvania University of Nevada, Reno Ramaz School Reno, Nevada PhiN Clipoel uwMm Y.b Goiar okCl,d oNlfleeedgwe r CYhoircakgo Center EdwDNaarnsdhi eLul a’WH, Neobmestwmer H eCdaoimelluepgsehire GayS opAur.ti nhRwgafegiseatl ndM, iMssoiussroi uSrtiate University for Book and Paper Arts Alan Lipp Chicago, Illinois Williston Northampton School Elliot Richmond Shirley B. Gray Easthampton, Massachusetts Education Consultants California State University, Los Rose Kathleen Lynch Austin, Texas Angeles Indiana University Stephen Robinson Los Angeles, California Bloomington, Indiana San Dimas, California v i i Contributors F. Arnold Romberg Shai Simonson Locord D. Wilson La Grange, Texas Stonehill College Jackson State University North Easton, Massachusetts Jackson, Mississippi Lorraine Savage Manchester, New Hampshire Laura Snyder Alice Romberg Wood Sierra Vista, Arizona Bellwood, Nebraska Daniel Scher New York University Elizabeth Sweeney John R. Wood New York, New York Clayton Middle School Bellwood, Nebraska Reno, Nevada Marilyn Schwader Sonia Woodbury Clarity of Vision Writing & Design Marzieh Thomasian University of Utah Portland, Oregon Austin, Texas Salt Lake City, Utah Paul Shotsberger Stanislaus Noel Ting Richard B. Worth University of North Carolina at Evry, France Indiana Department of Wilmington Environmental Management Joan Vernikos Wilmington, North Carolina Indianapolis, Indiana Thirdage LLC Marilyn K. Simon Alexandria, Virginia Walden University Minneapolis, MN vi i i Table of Contents VOLUME 1: Brain, Human Bush, Vannevar Preface List of Contributors C Calculators A Calculus Abacus Calendar, Numbers in the Absolute Zero Carpenter Accountant Carroll, Lewis Accuracy and Precision Cartographer Agnesi, Maria Gaëtana Census Agriculture Central Tendency, Measures of Air Traffic Controller Chaos Algebra Cierva Codorniu, Juan de la Algebra Tiles Circles, Measurement of Algorithms for Arithmetic City Planner Alternative Fuel and Energy City Planning Analog and Digital Comets, Predicting Angles, Measurement of Communication Methods Angles of Elevation and Depression Compact Disc, DVD, and MP3 Apollonius of Perga Technology Archaeologist Computer-Aided Design Archimedes Computer Analyst Architect Computer Animation Architecture Computer Graphic Artist Artists Computer Information Systems Astronaut Computer Programmer Astronomer Computer Simulations Astronomy, Measurements in Computers and the Binary System Athletics, Technology in Computers, Evolution of Electronic Computers, Future of Computers, Personal B Congruency, Equality, and Similarity Babbage, Charles Conic Sections Banneker, Benjamin Conservationist Bases Consistency Bernoulli Family Consumer Data Boole, George Cooking, Measurement of Bouncing Ball, Measurement of a Coordinate System, Polar ix
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