Materials in Marine Technology

257 Pages·1994·8.718 MB·English

by  Robert L. Reuben BSc, PhD, CEng, MIM (auth.)

Materials in Marine Technology
Robert Reuben
Materials in Marine
Technology
With 261 Figures
Springer-Verlag
London Berlin Heidelberg New York
Paris Tokyo Hong Kong
Barcelona Budapest
Robert L. Reuben, BSc, PhD, CEng. MIM
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Heriot-Watt University. Riccarton.
Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK
ISBN-13:978-1-4471-2013-1 e-ISBN-13:978-1-4471-2011-7
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4471-2011-7
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Reuben, Robert L.
Materials in Marine Technology
I. Title
620.1
ISBN-13:978-1-4471-2013-1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Reuben, Robert (Robert L.), 1953-
Materials in marine technology!Robert Reuben
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13:978-1-4471-2013-1
l. Ocean engineering. 2. Materials. I. Title.
TC1650.R48 1993
620' A I 62-dc20 93-15462
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study. or criticism or review. as pennitted
under the Copyright. Designs and Patents Act 1988. this publication may only be reproduced. stored or
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statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
© Springer-Verlag London Limited 1994
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1994
The publisher and the author make no representation. express or implied. with regard to the accuracy of the
information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any elTors or
omissions that may be made.
Typeset by EXPO Holdings, Malaysia
69/3830-543210 Printed on acid-free paper
Preface
Any reader of this preface will probably first want to know the meaning of the title since, although
the intention is obvious, the scope and method of the coverage could mean anything from a set of
data tables to a detailed metallurgical treatise. I hope to have met some sensible balance between
these extremes and to have written something which will be used by engineers rather than serving to
emphasise the barriers which clearly exist between those who use materials and those who research
them.
The book has been written in response to a real need that I have observed among engineers work
ing in design and manufacturing activities related to the offshore and marine industries. I have often
been asked by those practising engineers to whom I act as consultant whether there is a text which
covers the applications of materials in the marine environment. Leaving aside my pecuniary interest
in making the negative reply, it has to be said that, although many good texts on aspects of this sub
ject exist, few seem to cover all of this ground, preferring rather to stay with one aspect, such as cor
rosion, or with one material or group of materials. Having tried, I hope with some success, to distil
the wealth of available information into a single text, I think I can now see why this was so.
In my activities as a researcher and consultant to the marine and offshore industries and as a lectur
er in mechanical and offshore engineering, I have observed that engineers need only know sufficient
metallurgy and chemistry to converse sensibly with materials experts and to select materials, pro
vided they take into account the possible pitfalls that lie in wait for the unwary. Therefore, the
approach taken in this book has been to develop the chemical and metallurgical aspects only to such a
degree as is necessary and to concentrate mainly on providing data and, more importantly, on
communicating the accumulated experience of designers and manufacturers that can be found in the
literature. It is inevitable in a book of this nature to have to rely on the published work of others. I
have tried to ensure accuracy by referring to as many authorities as possible but accept that opinions
and standards may change with time. I would welcome comments from readers which would help me
to correct or update the book for any future edition.
The data are collected mostly in Chapter 4 and, although the experience aspect is spread through
out the book, the Case Studies in Chapter 7 provide a more detailed study of particular examples. I
have referred to Codes and Standards on a number of occasions but the reader should recognise that
these references do not constitute specifications. Designers should always check for details and
updates in the current versions of the Code or Standard itself.
The structure of the book has been designed so that entry can be made directly to Chapter 4 where
most of the data reside, Chapters 2 and 3 providing a detailed description of the properties tabulated
and also indicating how these properties might be used in design. Chapters 5 and 6 refer mainly to
aspects of manufacture and maintenance which are of particular importance in marine technology,
with the Case Studies giving some indications of how the data might be used in specific situations. I
have tried to make mention of 'new' materials such as composites throughout the book and have
probably overcompensated so that the relative treatment of these materials exceeds their proportional
use in marine environments. I make no apology for this, as I have tried to look forward to the time
when the 'structural materials' such as concrete and steel will only be used where necessary.
Finally, it is hoped that the liberal use of schematic illustrations will make the book communicate
more quickly, as well as making the text briefer and allowing the reader to concentrate on
methodology.
Edinburgh, 1993 R.L.R.
Contents
1 The Marine Environment, Marine Structures and the Role of Materials Technology .. .
1.1 The ocean environment .................................................................................................. .
1.1.1 The chemistry of seawater .................................................................................. 1
1.1.2 Water depth and seabed .... ....... ..... ....... ...... .................. .......... ...... ......... .......... .... 3
1.1.3 Biological considerations ... ... ..... .... ..... ..... ...... ..... ... ....... ........ ...... ......... ... ............ 4
1.1.4 Marine atmospheres............................................................................................ 4
1.1.5 Marine currents. ........... ..... ........... ..... ................ ... ..... .......... ........ ......... .......... ..... 5
1.1.6 Waves.................................................................................................................. 5
1.1.7 Ice........................................................................................................................ 6
1.2 The development of marine structures and materials ...................................................... 6
1.3 The range of material properties and the selection process ............................................. 9
2 Mechanical Properties and Design for Marine Use ............................................................ 19
2.1 Properties related to deformation behaviour ................................................................... 19
2.1.1 Metallic deformation properties.... ..... ....... ...... ... ..... ... ............ ...... .... ..... ...... .... .... 19
2.1.2 Polymer deformation processes .......................................................................... 20
2.1.3 The deformation of concrete ............................... ,. ....... .......... ...... ......... ...... .... .... 23
2.1.4 The deformation of timber ........... ..... ..... ...... ..... ... ....... ..... ......... ......... ..... ....... ..... 24
2.1.5 The deformation of ceramics and glasses .... ..... ..... ....... ... ......... ........... ... ....... ..... 24
2.1.6 The deformation of composite materials............................................................. 24
2.1.7 The use of deformation property data in design.................................................. 29
2.2 Fracture and fatigue ......................................................................................................... 30
2.2.1 Fracture and fatigue in metals. ....... ..... ..... ... ... ..... ... ......... ... ...... ..... .... ..... ..... ........ 34
2.2.2 Fracture and fatigue in polymers......................................................................... 36
2.2.3 Fracture and fatigue in concrete .......................................................................... 38
2.2.4 Fracture in timber ......... ..... ........... ....... ......... ....... ... ... .... ............. ....... .... ............ ... 39
2.2.5 Fracture in ceramics... ....... ........... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ... ................ ....... ....... ......... ... 39
2.2.6 Fracture and fatigue in composites... ..... ... ... ..... .......... ..... ... ...... ......... ..... ....... ..... 39
2.2.7 Use of fracture and fatigue data in design........................................................... 41
2.3 Wear properties................................................................................................................ 41
3 Marine Corrosion and Biodeterioration ....... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ....... .............. ..... .... ...... ...... ... 45
3.1 The science of corrosion.................................................................................................. 45
3.1.1 Equilibrium electrodics ....................................................................................... 45
3.1.2 Electrode kinetics ................................................................................................ 47
3.1.2.1 Activation polarisation .......................................................................... 48
3.1.2.2 Concentration polarisation .................................................................... 49
3.1.2.3 Other kinetic effects .............................................................................. 50
3.2 The morphology of corrosion .......................................................................................... 51
3.2.1 General corrosion ................................................................................................ 51
viii Contents
3.2.2 Effect of material or environmental heterogeneity ............................................ . 52
3.2.3 Effect of surface layers (non-mechanical) ........................................................ .. 55
3.2.4 Mechanically assisted corrosion ........................................................................ . 55
3.2.5 Deterioration of polymers .................................................................................. . 59
3.2.6 Deterioration of other materials ......................................................................... . 59
3.3 Corrosivity and aggressiveness of specific environments ............................................... 61
3.3.1 The marine atmosphere ............................................................... ........................ 61
3.3.2 Seawater (including spray. splash. immersion and handling)............................. 61
3.3.3 Mineral, mud and hydrocarbon ............................. .............................................. 62
3.3.4 Carbon dioxide ....................................................... ............................................. 62
3.3.5 Biological and microbiological environments ................ .......... .......................... 63
3.3.6 Hydrogen sulphide ................................... ........................ ............ .......... ............. 64
3.4 Corrosion protection ............................................... ......... ................................... ............. 65
3.4.1 Prevention of metallic corrosion ......................................................................... 66
3.4.1.1 Coatings ............................ ................................................................... 66
3.4.1.2 Cathodic protection .............................................................................. 68
3.4.1.3 Anodic protection................................................................... ................ 71
3.4.1.4 Inhibition and electrolyte modification ................................................ 71
3.4.2 Protection against biological effects ............................... ...................................... 72
3.4.3 Protection of polymers ............................. ........................ ................................... 73
3.4.4 Protection of concrete ......................................................................................... 73
3.5 Assessment of materials performance ............................................................................. 73
4 Marine Materials.................................................................................................................... 79
4.1 Marine alloys ................................................................................................................... 79
4.1.1 Alloy' architecture' .................. ................... ..... ......... ........... ....... ........................ 79
4.1.1.1 Control of strength ............................................ .................. ................. 80
4.1.1.2 Control of toughness .................................. .................. ........................ 82
4.1.1.3 Fatigue resistance ................................................ ..... ...................... ...... 82
4.1.1.4 Corrosion resistance ............................................................................. 82
4.1.2 Carbon-manganese and low-alloy steels ............................................................ 83
4.1.3 Stainless steels..................................................................................................... 98
4.1.3.1 Austenitic stainless steels..................................................................... 98
4.1.3.2 Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels .............................................. .. 100
4.1.3.3 Duplex and precipitation hardening stainless steels .......................... .. 102
4.1.3.4 Properties of stainless steels ................................................................ . 10-1-
4.1.4 Cast irons ............................................................................................................ . 107
4.1.5 Aluminium alloys ............................................................................................... . 112
4.1.6 Copper alloys ..................................................................................................... . 11-1-
4.1.6.1 The high-copper alloys ....................................................................... . 115
4.1.6.2 The cupro-nickels ................................................................................ . 115
4.1.6.3 Brasses and bronzes ............................................................................ . 115
4.1.6.3.1 Copper-zinc alloys .......................................................... .. 116
4.1.6.3.2 Copper-tin alloys ............................................................. .. 116
4.1.6.3.3 Copper-aluminium alloys ............................................... .. 116
4.1.6.3.4 More complex alloys ........................................................ . 117
4.1.7 Nickel alloys ....................................................................................................... . 118
4.1.8 Other alloys ........................................................................................................ . 119
4.1.8.1 Titanium alloys ................................................................................... . 119
4.1.8.2 Magnesium alloys .............................................................................. .. 119
4.1.8.3 Zinc alloys ........................................................................................... . 120
4.1.8.4 Others ................................................................................................. .. 120
4.2 Polymers for marine use ........................................................... ............... ........................ 120
4.2.1 Thermoplastics.................................................................................................... 122
Contents ix
4.2.1.1 Polyethylenes ....................................................................................... 122
4.2.1.2 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) .................................................................... 123
4.2.1.3 Polypropylene (PP) .............................................................................. 124
4.2.1.4 Polystyrene (PS)................................................................................... 125
4.2.1.5 The engineering thermoplastics .......... ...................................... ........... 126
4.2.1.6 Thermoplastic copolymers and polymer blends .................................. 129
4.2.2 Thermosetting plastics.. ......... ......... .................... ................. .......................... ..... 131
4.2.2.1 The aminoplastics .......................................................... ~..................... 132
4.2.2.2 Polyurethanes ....................................................................................... 133
4.2.2.3 Polyesters ............................................................................................. 133
4.2.2.4 Phenolics .............................................................................................. 134
4.2.2.5 Epoxies................................................................................................. 135
4.2.2.6 Polyimides............................................................................................ 135
4.2.3 Elastomers ........................................................................................................... 135
4.2.3.1 Natural rubber (NR) ............................................................................. 136
4.2.3.2 Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) ......................................................... 136
4.2.3.3 Butadiene rubber (BR) ......................................................................... 137
4.2.3.4 Ethylene-propylene rubber (EPM and EPDM) ................................... 138
4.2.3.5 Other elastomers .................................................................................. 139
4.3 Inorganic materials .......................................................................................................... 139
4.3.1 Glasses................................................................................................................. 139
4.3.2 Crystalline ceramics ............................................................................................ 142
4.3.3 Other reinforcing materials ................................................................................. 143
4.4 Composite materials.... ....... ......... ....... ......... ..................................................... ............... 145
4.4.1 Polymer-based composites.................................................................................. 146
4.4.1.1 Filled polymers .................................................................................... 146
4.4.1.2 Reinforcement with discontinuous fibres............................................. 146
4.4.1.3 Continuous fibre composites and laminates......................................... 146
4.4.2 Metal matrix composites ..................................................................................... 149
4.4.3 Ceramic matrix composites................................................................................. 149
4.5 Other materials of importance in marine environments .................................................. 150
4.5.1 Cement and concrete..... ......... ..... ............ ..... ..... .......... ....... ........... ....... .......... ..... 150
4.5.2 Timber for marine use......................................................................................... 154
4.5.3 Materials for marine coatings.............................................................................. 155
5 Fabrication and Manufacture for Marine Technology....................................................... 161
5.1 Welding ........................................................................................................................... 161
5.1.1 The development of welding technology for marine applications...... ........ ........ 161
5.1.2 Welding processes and process parameters ........................................................ 161
5.1.3 Residual stress and distortion .............................................................................. 166
5.1.4 Properties of welded joints ................ .................. .......... ...................... ................ 169
5.1.5 Weld procedures and qualification...................................................................... 169
5.1.6 Arc blow .............................................................................................................. 169
5.1.7 Weldability .......................................................................................................... 170
5.1. 7.1 Weldability of carbon-manganese steels ............................ .......... ....... 170
5.1.7.2 Weldability of low-alloy steels ............................................................ 175
5.1.7.3 Weldability of stainless steels.............................................................. 176
5.1.7.4 Weldability of aluminium alloys ......................................................... 178
5.1.7.5 Weldability of other alloys................................................................... 179
5.2 Manufacture with polymers and composites................................................................... 179
5.2.1 Plastics manufacturing ........................... ;............................................................ 179
5.2.2 Processing of reinforced plastics......................................................................... 180
5.2.3 Joining of polymers and composites ................................................................... 182
x Contents
5.3 Manufacturing processes involving cement and concrete ............................................... 182
5.3.1 The casting of concrete ....................................................................................... 183
5.3.2 The use of cement and concrete in repair............................................................ 183
6 Inspection, Testing and Reliability ................................................................. : .................... . 187
6.1 Destructive testing .......................................................................................................... . 187
6.2 Non-destructive testing ................................................................................................... . 187
6.2.1 Methods for surface-breaking defects ................................................................ . 188
6.2.2 Methods involving electrical and/or magnetic measurements ........................... . 190
6.2.3 Methods involving ultrasonics ........................................................................... . 191
6.2.4 Radiographic methods ........................................................................................ . 193
6.2.5 Special methods for concrete and composites ................................................... . 195
6.2.6 Acceptable defect levels and reliability of techniques ....................................... . 196
6.3 Monitoring ...................................................................................................................... . 198
6.3.1 Corrosion monitoring ......................................................................................... . 198
6.3.2 Structural monitoring ......................................................................................... . 200
6.4 Underwater intervention, inspection and repair ............................................................. . 200
6.4.1 Underwater intervention ..................................................................................... . 201
6.4.1.1 Diver work systems ............................................................................. . 202
6.4.1.2 One-atmosphere systems .................................................................... . 203
6.4.1.3 Remotely operated vehicles ................................................................ . 203
6.4.1.4 Underwater operability and dexterity ................................................. . 204
6.4.2 Underwater inspection methods ......................................................................... . 205
6.4.3 Underwater repair and maintenance methods .................................................... . 207
6.5 Mechanical reliability ..................................................................................................... . 209
6.6 Structural reliability and maintenance strategies ............................................................ . 211
7 Case Studies and Applications ............................................................................................. . 217
7.1 Fracture mechanics applied to pipelines ......................................................................... . 217
7.2 Fatigue of tubular joints for offshore structures ............................................................. . 220
7.3 Composite structures for marine applications ................................................................ . 223
7.4 The design of cathodic protection systems for subsea pipelines .................................... . 228
7.5 Flexible pipes .................................................................................................................. . 232
7.5.1 Reinforcing materials ......................................................................................... . 233
7.5.2 Internal surface ................................................................................................... . 235
7.5.3 External surface .................................................................................................. . 235
7.5.4 Pressure barrier polymers ................................................................................... . 235
7.5.5 Other materials ................................................................................................... . 237
7.6 Elastomers in dynamic marine applications ................................................................... . 237
7.6.1 Elastomers for energy absorption and vibration isolation .................................. . 239
7.6.2 Elastomers for articulations and bearings .......................................................... . 240
7.7 Economic considerations for materials in marine technology ........................................ . 241
7.7.1 Economics of corrosion control for downhole tubulars ..................................... . 241
7.7.2 Economics of production welding ..................................................................... . 242
Subject Index................................................................................................................................. 247
1 The Marine Environment, Marine Structures and
the Role of Materials Technology
The purpose of this chapter is to illustrate how the develop
ment of marine technology and materials technology have
paralleled each other over the centuries and to highlight
some milestones with particular relevance to the latter. In
order that this relationship can be appreciated the chapter
will also consider those aspects of the marine environment
which are of most importance in design and materials
selection.
For as long as people have been interested in venturing
into and onto the sea and oceans there has been a need to
support such activities with structures and hardware of
various types. For any but the simplest and most temporary
of such hardware, the properties and durability of materials
Fig. 1.1. Schematic interrelationship of environment,
in marine environments are of fundamental importance. design and materials selection (from Birchon [1 D.
Indeed, there are cases where engineering developments
have been directly stimulated by developments in materials
technology, as well as instances where the opposite has the most modem types of marine construction and materials
applied and the demands of offshore and marine engineers uses. The final section deals very broadly with the types of
have stimulated developments in materials technology. The materials available and the selection process.
early story of marine technology is mainly concerned with Throughout this book the broadest possible view is taken
transport, although exploitation (mostly of flora and fauna) of marine construction, covering ships, platforms, subsea
is also recorded as far back as records go. vehicles and habitats, and even some coastal and estuarine
Until relatively recently the development of marine tech developments where the materials and techniques are
nology has been mainly concentrated on military, transport similar to those used in the marine environment.
and trade, fishing and diving applications and has mostly
involved ships or submersibles, though a number of other
areas have been important from time to time, particularly
1.1 The Ocean Environment
on the coastal fringes.
Modem marine technology includes such motivations as
oil and gas exploration and recovery, seabed mining, ocean As far as the designer is concerned, the ocean environment
power stations (wind, wave, tidal, thermal energy conver differs chemically, biologically and physically from most
sion and others), recreation, fish farming, and harbour and land-based ones. The chemical and biological differences are,
estuary development; thus the methodology of design has of course, related to the presence of seawater and associated
become somewhat different from that applied by naval Iifeforms. The physical differences are largely associated
architects, although this ancient branch of engineering has with waves and currents, but other effects may also need to
also seen considerable recent development. be considered, such as those of wind loading in exposed loca
This chapter concentrates on an overview of the design tions and the movement of ice, sand or sediment. This section
environment-materials triangle suggested by Birchon [1] and treats each of these physical and chemical aspects separately
shown in Fig. 1.1. This illustrates how the marine environ but very briefly, concentrating on those which affect the
ment and the capabilities of materials are inextricably bound design of offshore and marine constructions.
up with the process of engineering design, and how an alter
ation of any limb of the triangle affects the remaining two.
The discussion in this chapter commences with a very brief
1.1.1 The Chemistry of Seawater
description of the marine environment and its effect on engi
neering design. This is followed by a description of the The chemical composition of seawater can vary substantially,
development of marine engineering, highlighting the mate both in the short and long geographical ranges and also
rials technology present at each stage and culminating with seasonally, because of a dynamic process which includes
2 Materials in Marine Technology
Weathering Condensallon
t Ocean st"rlng
Igneous and
metamorphic
t Dust
Evaporation
t
, Gas exchange \
,
Organisms -4---- PhotosynthesIs
Volcanic gases
Detrital material
Sed,mentallon
Subduction
Mid·oceanlc
Sediment ndge
Fig. 1.2. Schematic description of the chemical mass balance of seawater (after Whitfield [2]).
the weathering of rocks, the flow of rivers. evaporation. o ...---....------r---,
rain, photosynthesis and volcanic reactions (Fig. 1.2).
A typical analysis of seawater such as that given in Table
l.l shows that it contains predominantly sodium and chlor
ide ions, but that magnesium and sulphate ions are also pres
ent in appreciable quantities. From the point of view of
~
engineering, the most important chemical properties of sea
Nonh onh
water (and hence those which are most often measured) are E 2 PacIfic Allantlc
salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen content and temperature.
~
although these in turn also affect to a certain degree the r:
Q.
biological distribution of species. Cl>
0 3
Salinity is defined as the total weight per thousand (parts
of water) of dissolved inorganic salts, and is usually around
35 per thousand for open-ocean seawater [4]. The global
and seasonal variation of surface salinity is quite small 4
(typically 31 to 36 parts per thousand). especially when
depth is taken into account (Fig. 1.3). Apart from its effect
on corrosion, salinity affects the speed of propagation of
5'"--......- ....... .....&.M---'-----'
sound (with consequent implications for refraction in 32 33 34 35 36
Salinity (pans per thOusand)
Table 1.1. Typical chemical constitution of seawater Fig. 1.3. Salinity-depth profiles for North Atlantic (right)
and North Pacific (left) open-water sites (from Dexter [4]).
Constituent Concentration
(parts per thousand by weight)
Sodium 10.8 underwater acoustics) and. to a lesser extent. seawater
Magnesium 1.3 density and hence buoyancy forces.
Calcium 0.41 Variations in temperature ha\'e a much larger effect on
Potassium 0.40 marine design than do those in salinity. Temperature can
Strontium 0.008 affect. among other things. rates of marine growth. material
Chloride 19.3
properties. corrosion rates and the feasibility of di\'er
Sulphate 2.7
deployment. Figures IA and 1.5 summarise seasonal \'ari
Bromide 0.07
Carbon (as bicarbonate, ations in sea\\ater temperature according to global position
carbonate and dissolved and depth.
carbon dioxide) 0.02-0.03 Dissol\'ed oxygen content can ha\'e a considerable effect
on corrosion (see Chapter 3). and is subject to rather greater
Source: Morgan [3]. variations than are the inorganic ions. Both salinity and