Materials for engineers and technicians

472 Pages·2006·10.161 MB·English

by  Raymond A Higgins

S SIXTH EDITION
MATERIALS I
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FOR H
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ENGINEERS D
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A comprehensive yet accessible introduction to materials engineering
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which provides a straightforward, readable approach to the subject. The R
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sixth edition includes a new chapter on the selection of materials, an E
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updated discussion of new materials, and a complete glossary of key R
N
terms used in materials engineering. I
GA
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This renowned text has provided many thousands of students with an I
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easily accessible introduction to the wide-ranging subject area of materials

engineering and manufacturing processes for over forty years. It avoids E
E
the excessive jargon and mathematical complexity so often found in
R
textbooks for this subject, retaining the practical down-to-earth approach
S
for which the book is noted. The increased emphasis on the selection

of materials reflects the increased emphasis on this aspect of materials A
engineering now seen within current vocational and university courses. N
D
In addition to meeting the requirements of vocational and undergraduate

engineering syllabuses, this text will also provide a valuable desktop T
E
reference for professional engineers working in product design who require
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a quick source of information on materials and manufacturing processes.
H MATERIALS
W. Bolton was formerly Head of Research and Development and N
Monitoring at BTEC. He has also been a UNESCO consultant and is I
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author of many successful engineering textbooks.
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R.A. Higgins was a Senior Lecturer in Materials Science at the N
College of Commerce and Technology, West Bromwich, UK. He was ENGINEERS
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a Chief Metallurgist at Messrs Aston Chain and Hook Ltd,
Birmingham, UK, as well as an Examiner in Metallurgy for the Institution
of Production Engineers, the City and Guilds of London Institute,
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the Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes and the Union of RW
Educational Institutes. . A. B
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Cover image: © Shutterstock.com
W. BOLTON &
R. A. HIGGINS
Routledge titles are available as eBook editions in a range of digital formats
Materials for Engineers and Technicians
A comprehensive yet accessible introduction to materials engineering which provides a straightforward,
readable approach to the subject. The sixth edition includes a new chapter on the selection of materials, an
updated discussion of new materials, and a complete glossary of key terms used in materials engineering.
This renowned text has provided many thousands of students with an easily accessible introduction to the
wide-ranging subject area of materials engineering and manufacturing processes for over forty years. It avoids
the excessive jargon and mathematical complexity so often found in textbooks for this subject, retaining the
practical down-to-earth approach for which the book is noted. The increased emphasis on the selection of
materials reflects the increased emphasis on this aspect of materials engineering now seen within current
vocational and university courses.
In addition to meeting the requirements of vocational and undergraduate engineering syllabuses, this text
will also provide a valuable desktop reference for professional engineers working in product design who require
a quick source of information on materials and manufacturing processes.
W. Bolton was formerly Head of Research and Development and Monitoring at BTEC. He has also been a
UNESCO consultant and is author of many successful engineering textbooks.
R.A. Higgins was a Senior Lecturer in Materials Science at the College of Commerce and Technology, West
Bromwich, UK. He was a Chief Metallurgist at Messrs Aston Chain and Hook Ltd., Birmingham, UK, as
well as an Examiner in Metallurgy for the Institution of Production Engineers, the City and Guilds of London
Institute, the Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes and the Union of Educational Institutes.
Page Intentionally Left Blank
Materials for Engineers
and Technicians
Sixth Edition
W. Bolton
R.A. Higgins
First published by Arnold 1972
This edition published 2015
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2015 W. Bolton and R.A. Higgins
The right of W. Bolton and R.A. Higgins and to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bolton, W. (William), 1933–
[Materials]
Materials for engineers and technicians / W. Bolton, R.A. Higgins. — 6th edition.
pages cm
Original edition published under the title: Materials.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1.Materials. I. Higgins, Raymond A. (Raymond Aurelius), 1916–II. Title.
TA403.B64 2014
620.11—dc23
2014011242
ISBN: 9781138778757 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781315771687 (ebk)
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon
Contents
Preface xi
1 Engineering materials 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The requirements 2
1.3 The materials 3
1.4 Structure of materials 6
1.5 Processes 13
1.6 The materials society 13
2 Properties of materials 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Properties 15
2.3 Costs 21
2.4 Data sources 22
3 Mechanical testing 25
3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 The tensile test 25
3.3 Hardness tests 30
3.4 Impact tests 37
3.5 Creep 40
3.6 Fatigue 41
3.7 Other mechanical tests 43
3.8 Factor of safety 46
4 The crystal structure of metals 48
4.1 Introduction 48
4.2 From gas to solid 48
4.3 Metal crystals 49
4.4 Impurities in cast metals 53
4.5 The influence of cooling rates on crystal size 54
5 Casting process 57
5.1 Introduction 57
5.2 Ingot-casting 57
5.3 Sand-casting 58
5.4 Die-casting 60
5.5 Centrifugal-casting 61
5.6 Investment-casting 62
vi Contents
5.7 Full-mould process 64
5.8 Semi-solid metal processing 65
5.9 The choice of casting process 66
6 Mechanical deformation of metals 68
6.1 Introduction 68
6.2 Slip 68
6.3 Annealing 72
6.4 Cold-working process 75
6.5 Hot-working processes 76
6.6 Grain flow and fibre 77
6.7 Metallurgical furnaces 80
7 The mechanical shaping of metals 83
7.1 Introduction 83
7.2 Hot-working processes 83
7.3 Cold-working processes 86
7.4 Powder metallurgy 94
7.5 Machining metals 96
8 Alloys 100
8.1 Introduction 100
8.2 Eutectics 101
8.3 Solid solutions 102
8.4 Intermetallic compounds 108
8.5 Summary: alloys 109
9 Equilibrium diagrams 110
9.1 Introduction 110
9.2 Obtaining equilibrium diagrams 110
9.3 Types of equilibrium diagram 113
9.4 Precipitation from a solid solution 121
9.5 Ternary equilibrium diagrams 124
10 Practical microscopy 127
10.1 Introduction 127
10.2 Selecting and mounting a specimen 127
10.3 Grinding and polishing the specimen 129
10.4 Etching the specimen 132
10.5 The metallurgical microscope 134
10.6 The electron microscope 137
11 Iron and steel 139
11.1 Introduction 139
11.2 Smelting 139
11.3 Steel-making 141
11.4 Composition of steel 143
11.5 The structure of plain-carbon steels 144
Contents vii
11.6 Heat-treatment of steel 150
11.7 Brittle fracture in steels 155
12 The heat-treatment of plain-carbon steels 157
12.1 Introduction 157
12.2 Principles of hardening 157
12.3 The hardening process 163
12.4 Tempering 164
12.5 Isothermal heat-treatments 167
12.6 Hardenability 168
12.7 The Jominy test 170
12.8 Hardenability 172
12.9 Heat-treatment furnaces 172
13 Alloy steels 173
13.1 Introduction 173
13.2 Constructional steels 174
13.3 Tool and die steels 180
13.4 Stainless steels 184
13.5 Heat-resisting steels 188
13.6 Magnet alloys 188
13.7 The principal effects of the main alloying elements 192
14 The surface hardening of steels 193
14.1 Introduction 193
14.2 Case-hardening 194
14.3 Heat-treatment after carburising 196
14.4 Case-hardening steels 198
14.5 Nitriding 198
14.6 Ionitriding 202
14.7 Flame-hardening 202
14.8 Induction-hardening 203
14.9 Summary of surface-hardening processes 204
15 Cast iron 205
15.1 Introduction 205
15.2 Composition of cast irons 205
15.3 The influence of cooling rate on the properties of a cast iron 208
15.4 ‘Growth’ in cast irons 210
15.5 Ordinary cast irons 210
15.6 High-duty cast irons 212
15.7 Malleable cast irons 213
15.8 Alloy cast irons 215
15.9 Which iron? 216
16 Copper and its alloys 217
16.1 Introduction 217
16.2 The extraction of copper 217
viii Contents
16.3 Properties of copper 218
16.4 Coppers and alloys 218
16.5 The brasses 220
16.6 Tin bronzes 224
16.7 Aluminium bronzes 229
16.8 Copper–nickel alloys 229
16.9 Other copper alloys 232
17 Aluminium and its alloys 235
17.1 Introduction 235
17.2 Extraction of aluminium 235
17.3 Properties of aluminium 236
17.4 Aluminium alloys 237
17.5 Wrought alloys which are not heat-treated 240
17.6 Cast alloys which are not heat-treated 241
17.7 Wrought alloys which are heat-treated 242
17.8 Cast alloys which are heat-treated 248
18 Other non-ferrous metals and alloys 250
18.1 Introduction 250
18.2 Nickel and its alloys 250
18.3 Titanium and its alloys 255
18.4 Magnesium-base alloys 258
18.5 Zinc-base alloys 259
18.6 Bearing metals 261
18.7 Other metals 264
19 Plastics materials and rubbers 268
19.1 Introduction 268
19.2 Types of plastics 268
19.3 Thermoplastics 271
19.4 Thermoplastic materials 274
19.5 Thermosets 287
19.6 Thermoset materials 288
19.7 Elastomers 295
19.8 Recycling of polymers 299
20 Properties of plastics 301
20.1 Introduction 301
20.2 Crystal and glass states 301
20.3 Mechanical properties 303
20.4 Additives 310
20.5 Shaping plastics 312
20.6 Machining polymers 316
21 Ceramics 317
21.1 Introduction 317
21.2 Silicate-based ceramics 318
Contents ix
21.3 Asbestos 320
21.4 Clay products 322
21.5 Engineering ceramics 324
21.6 Properties of ceramics 328
21.7 Cement 332
21.8 Semiconductors 333
22 Glasses 336
22.1 Introduction 336
22.2 Composition and structure of glass 336
22.3 Glass-transition temperature 338
22.4 Glass manufacture 340
22.5 The properties of glass 341
22.6 Glasses and their uses 342
22.7 Metallic glasses 343
23 Composite materials 344
23.1 Introduction 344
23.2 Particle-hardened composites 345
23.3 Dispersion-hardened materials 345
23.4 Mortar and concrete 347
23.5 Tarmacadam 349
24 Fibre-reinforced composite materials 350
24.1 Introduction 350
24.2 Unidirectional composites 352
24.3 Fibres 353
24.4 Matrix materials 357
24.5 Mechanical properties 358
24.6 Fibre-composite manufacture 359
24.7 Uses of fibre-reinforced composites 361
24.8 Reinforced wood 362
24.9 Reinforced concrete 364
25 Methods of joining materials 366
25.1 Introduction 366
25.2 Adhesives 366
25.3 Soldering and brazing 368
25.4 Welding 370
25.5 Arc-welding processes 371
25.6 Electric resistance welding 375
25.7 Thermo-chemical welding 378
25.8 Radiation welding 379
25.9 Solid-state welding 379
25.10Structure of welds 380
25.11Welding of plastics 381