Materials for Chemical Sensors PDF
Preview Materials for Chemical Sensors
Materials for Chemical Sensors Editors Subhendu Bhandari Department of Plastic and Polymer Engineering Maharashtra Institute of Technology Aurangabad, Maharashtra India Arti Rushi Electronics and Telecommunication Department Maharashtra Institute of Technology Aurangabad, Maharashtra India p, p, A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK Cover illustration reproduced by kind courtesy of Dr. Subhendu Bhandari. First edition published 2023 by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 and by CRC Press 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN © 2023 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected] Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data (applied for) ISBN: 978-0-367-48435-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-45789-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-03977-8 (ebk) DOI: 10.1201/9781003039778 Typeset in Times New Roman by Radiant Productions Preface Sensors constitute the intelligent class that can be useful for the detection of various organic/inorganic contaminants. The sensors are the devices which belong to the category of transducers. They accept one form of signal and convert it into another form. Sensors can be classified into various sub-categories which may be either in terms of the sensing material that is being employed in designing of the sensor, or the target parameter for which the sensor is intended. However, sensors based on changes of chemical properties are always standing as monarch of research interests since in such sensors, technology component is considerably less and output signals are easy to process and analyze. Fundamentally, such sensors consider chemical reactions as the backbone of its sensing mechanism. While fabricating any sensor, the main component which requires the highest attention is nothing but the ‘sensing material’. The overall characteristics of any sensor are mostly dependent on the sensing material used in the fabrication of the sensor. ‘Materials with mind’ are the highest sought for resources in sensor science. Technologies in a sensor appear to be the most subsidiary part, only after the sensor material is ‘intelligent’ enough to extend a reliable, sensitive, selective and repetitive performance towards detection of the targeted analyte(s) as the first hand desired characteristics. Apart from very few instances, naturally occurring substances are rarely reported to be efficient sensing platforms as they fall short of meeting all requisites of an ideal sensor in a single material. Therefore, modification/modulation in naturally occurring substances or chemically/physically engineered substances, perhaps, constitutes the most significant part of consideration in sensor materials. Till date, the sensor science has witnessed the most influenced research in this particular direction. The primary objective of this book is to discuss various materials which could be used efficiently in fabrication of chemical sensors. This book would be highly useful for the research community working in the area of sensor development. Also, for the material scientists, this book is expected to be a helping guide. The undergraduate and post graduate faculty members and students interested to work with various sensor materials may find this book as a guiding platform. This book constitutes a spectrum of sensing materials used in the fabrication of chemical sensors. In this book, eight chapters are devoted to some of the most efficient sensing materials that have been used in the development of chemical sensors. This book begins with one of the classical materials viz. metal oxide which has attracted research attention through decades, back from 1950s. The important properties of metal oxides which are important in sensing applications are discussed iv Materials for Chemical Sensors in the first chapter. Also, sensing mechanism involved in metal oxide-based sensor and characteristics of this class of sensor are discussed in this chapter. The second chapter encompasses information related to one of the most promising one- dimensional nanomaterials—carbon nanotubes. Authors have provided an insight in design architecture, fabrication methods, functionalization methods, mechanism of CNT based sensors and sensing parameters. The third chapter focuses on graphene, a two-dimensional sensing material. The discussion of the physiochemical properties of this material, used in the demonstration of chemical sensor, is provided here. The fourth chapter includes review of hydrogel-based sensors. The operational principle, sensor design, sensing parameters and various sensing applications are explained in this chapter. The fifth chapter provides comprehensive idea about luminescent metal-organic frameworks (MOF) as chemical sensors. The uses of MOF materials in the detection of inorganic and organic compounds such as VOCs, ionic species, biomolecules, environmental pollutants, toxic molecules, etc., have been discussed in the chapter. The sixth chapter is assigned for biomaterials and biosensing technology. The applications of biomaterials for the detection of cancer cells, enzymes and human motions have been discussed in this chapter. The seventh chapter is based on the theme of application of textiles in chemical sensor. In this chapter, discussion is given on textile based wearable sensors for detection of sweat, wound extrudates, etc. The last chapter encompasses the information about various materials used in the chemical sensing which are not discussed in the previous chapters. The sensing capabilities of materials such as pyrylium, hydrazone, black phosphorus, diamond, electrolyte materials, quantum dots, fluorine derivatives, meta materials, ligands, crown ethers, porphyrin, etc., are discussed in this chapter. The discussion of all such ‘intelligent’ materials used in the chemical sensing is a herculean task; the inventory is epical that might require volumes altogether. Therefore, discussion on highly efficient materials that are used in the chemical sensing has been included in this book with a preferred orientation of different classes of materials. The credit of initiation of this book project goes to the publishers. It is our honour to serve as the editor for this book. The contribution for the proposed chapter has been invited by the editors. Renowned scientists across the globe having interest in this particular topic have been requested to contribute in this book project. We would like to declare that all the submitted chapters are thoroughly reviewed and have undergone the revision process. The timely submission from all the authors is appreciated in view of completion of this book project. We would like to extend our sincere thanks to all the contributing authors and co-authors for their timely submission and for their dedication in this entire journey. We owe our heartfelt regards to the publishing staff (especially, Mr. Raju Primlani) for their initiative, co-ordination, continuous support and time- to-time guidance. Subhendu Bhandari Arti Rushi Contents Preface iii 1. Metal Oxides as Chemical Sensors 1 Bhagwan G. Toksha and Sagar E. Shirsath 2. Carbon Nanotube-Based Chemical Sensors 19 Sovan Lal Banerjee and Matthew V. Tirrell 3. Graphene Based Chemical Sensors 56 Bhagwan G. Toksha, Prashant Gupta and Sagar E. Shirsath 4. Hydrogel Based Chemical Sensors 75 Moumita Shee, Piyali Basak, Amit K. Das and Narayan Ch. Das 5. Luminescent Metal-Organic Frameworks as Chemical Sensors 96 Yogeshwar D. More, Sahel Fajal, Subhajit Dutta and Sujit K. Ghosh 6. Biomaterials as Chemical Sensors 135 Benny Ryplida, Ji Hyun Ryu and Sung Young Park 7. Textile Chemical Sensors 163 Marta Tessarolo, Isacco Gualandi, Luca Possanzini and Federica Mariani 8. Miscellaneous Materials for Chemical Sensing 207 Prashant Gupta, Aastha Dutta and Mostafizur Rahaman Index 231 About the Editors 233 C 1 hapter Metal Oxides as Chemical Sensors Bhagwan G. Toksha1 and Sagar E. Shirsath2,* Introduction The first attempt at using metal oxide materials as chemical sensors dates seven decades back (Brattain and Bardeen 1953). The discovery revolved around the logic that semiconducting materials modify their resistance as they come in contact with some active substance depending on the atmosphere they are in contact with. This scientific exploration further expanded with continuous blood monitoring through biosensors and ion concentration monitoring through field effect based devices (Clark and Lyons 1962, Bergveld 1972). Further, the form of devices that could detect gases through heat arrangement and resistivity change could be realized (Taguchi 1972, Yagawara et al. 1990). Ideally, a sensor is a device carrying the virtues of being inexpensive, portable, accurate and instantaneous in response to some stimulus. The chemical sensors offer selective, measurable, and reproducible response to a certain target chemical substance (Fowler et al. 2009, Bandodkar et al. 2016). This ‘chemical of interest’ could be present in the surrounding in liquid/ gaseous phase at any concentration level. These devices are fabricated with wide spectrum of material recipes to work as chemical sensors. However, with tremendous advancements in recent times, a thing such as ‘ideal chemical sensor’ is yet to be achieved. The chemical parameters, mostly of interest for sensing applications other than selective applications, are pH, salinity/conductivity, dissolved oxygen/carbon dioxide, etc. (Buono et al. 2021, Deji et al. 2021, Luo and Wang 2021, Sinha et al. 2021). The presence/absence of a chemical entity as a step change in any parameter, identifying a particular analyte, concentration in terms of magnitude are detected in sensing mechanisms. The metal oxide sensors reduced in size possess flexibility, simple operation, structural designs able to wrap/twist, and compatibility to integrate 1 Electronics and Telecommunication Department, Maharashtra Institute of Technology, Maharashtra, India. 2 School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia. * Corresponding author: [email protected] 2 Materials for Chemical Sensors with IoTs (Internet of Things), which most importantly takes the sensing applications into automated versions (Gomes et al. 2019). The worldwide usage of chemical sensors is going to produce a business of more than 30 billion USD before 2030 (www.marketresearchfuture.com 2021). The research interest in chemical sensors is projected to witness significant increase in the forthcoming decade. The prominent reason for this growth is the increased use of chemical sensors in healthcare, oil and gas, industrial, agricultural, and biochemical sectors. The use of chemical sensors is going to be inevitable in detection of various chemical entities involved in vehicle industry, processing industry, and safety protocol and monitoring industry. In the healthcare industry in particular, the chemical sensors are of great help in treatments, portable monitors, diagnosis, and drug/alcohol abuse diagnosis. The developments in this field jointly with lower manufacturing costs involved will lead to higher clamour and mobilize the demands. Metal oxides are materials of interest for the researchers working in the field of sensors due to their affordability, adaptability in terms of properties by compositional changes, and ease in designing the connection with single recording devices. These materials also exhibit sizable step change in response parameter on exposure to the target molecule, adaptability in terms of properties by compositional changes, and ease in designing the connection with single recording devices (Sun et al. 2012). The sensors having metal oxides as active material display better results as compared to other materials in the detection of baneful pollutants, and explosive gases, and serious health-related symptoms in human exhaled breath (Fernandez et al. 2018, Yang et al. 2021). The output of research activities in terms of publications and patents usually report sensing mechanisms limited to individual gas or chemical entities. The laboratory level experiments are found to be falling much short to real world working conditions where all other ambient conditions such as humidity, other interfering gases and temperature are present. The understanding of various mechanisms leading to sensing action could be broadly classified as ‘chemiresistive’ wherein the designed sensing material changes its electrical resistance in response to the chemical reaction with the target material or ‘cataluminescent’ where the electromagnetic radiation would be the output of a chemical reaction between the sensing material and the target material (Liu et al. 2016, Hu et al. 2019, Park et al. 2019). The structure and working mechanism of a chemical sensor is depicted in Figure 1. As the target entity to be sensed comes in contact with the sensing material, a signal as a step change in the sensing material is produced and detected through transducer action. This output from the transducer is a weak electronic pulse which is made as a measurable electrical signal in the next step. The recognition of the target entity results in some product of interaction between the sensing material and the target entity. This reaction has to be a reversible process which is indicative of the life time cycles of the sensor. The cycles of the recognition process are the results of the non-covalent chemical bonds, i.e., ionic/hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions. The major challenges in the effective sensing mechanism lie with the magnitude of product between sensing material and target entity. There is always a possibility of getting the same product from sensing material and some other non-intended entities in the same environment. This defeats the purpose of selectivity. The next step is to transduce them into a Metal Oxides as Chemical Sensors 3 Figure 1. The layered structure and working mechanism of chemical sensors. As the target entity to be sensed comes in contact with the sensing material, a signal as a step change is produced in the sensing material and detected through transducer action with an electric signal. Reprinted with permission from Mandoj et al. (2018). measurable electronic response. The change in the electrical property of sensing material as a function of the target entity is transduced to be a detectable signal. The change in the electrical property could be changed in resistance and/or change in the dielectric constant. The dielectric constant is measured with the use of the sensing material as a dielectric in the capacitor and the capacitance of such a capacitor is measured. The research in the metal oxide sensing materials has benefitted from the rapid and relentless advancements due to newer nanoscale technologies. The nanoscale processing brought the possibilities of controllable manipulation of matter at the molecular level. The understanding of properties and usage of nanomaterials has led to substantial changes in sensor designs and capabilities. The reduction in size, weight, power requirements has created opportunities for previously unavailable sensitivity, and specificity. In the present chapter, the contemporary developments of various metal oxide nanostructures will be discussed in the light of the latest requirements and future directions. The present book chapter is not intended to present an exhaustive account of the metal oxide as a chemical sensor. Rather, the chapter focuses on reviewing the developments in the field of chemical sensors on the basis of various metal oxide systems. The synthesis, i.e. designing and development of the metal oxide sensors with the important sensor operating characteristics involved is also elaborated. Metal Oxide Properties for Sensing Applications The metal oxide nanoparticles are bestowed with properties such as high density and optimal structural features on their surfaces. Owing to their appropriate porosity, reliable electrical performance, possibility to surpass Moore’s law limitation, metal 4 Materials for Chemical Sensors oxide nano-wires have attracted research interest (Zeng et al. 2021). This class of materials have structural properties such as variation in lattice parameters and increased number of surfaces and interfaces. This leads to structural modifications which generate strain/stress and adjoining structural perturbations (Bansal et al. 2006, Shaikh et al. 2021). The nanometric phase of metal oxides exhibit specific size-dependent magnetic, chemical, and electronic properties (Liu 2006, Toksha et al. 2017). The peculiar electrical properties useful in sensing applications are strongly dependent on the particle size (Franke et al. 2006). The TiO nanoparticles exhibit 2 ionic conductivity modulating its usability in the field of sensors. These nanoparticles are demonstrated to work effectively at high temperature harsh conditions where the increase in the n-n junctions available between anatase and rutile at high temperatures contributes positively towards conductivity (Fomekong et al. 2020). The chemical/ mechanical stability enables sustainability under harsh environments. The metal oxide materials possess wider band gap creating possibilities of high energy photon emission. The wide band-gap semiconducting behaviour of metal oxides makes the operation possible at higher temperatures (Pearton et al. 2010). The GaO 2 3 thin film sensor for sensing oxygen was devised and tested for stability, sensitivity and response time at 1000ºC (Baban et al. 2005). The ZnO material synthesized in one-dimensional nano-wire structure demonstrated superior potential in sensor applications with biocompatibility and improved sensing properties (Rackauskas et al. 2017). The metal oxide structural blend in case of ZnO and CuO nanowires was studied by Park et al. (Park et al. 2013). The charge carrier type junctions with other materials are designed for improvement in response and selectivity of sensors. It was reported that the ZnO nano-wire formed the hetero-junction with p-type materials, forming local p-n junctions as depicted in Figure 2. As a well-known fact about nanomaterials, the reduction in size in nano range brings escalation in the chemical reactivity due to its larger surface area to unit mass ratio (Bhati et al. 2020). The surface area is increased with decrease in particle size and contributes towards the improvement in the performance of sensing materials. This could be further enhanced in case of 1-D nanostructure with hollow nanostructures. The study involving SnO fibrous morphology with the role of sintering time reported 2 the critical role of specific surface area and mesopore diameter (Wu et al. 2015). In another case, where WO thin film morphology was synthesized by magnetron 3 Figure 2. The contrast among the three variations of contacts between ZnO and CuO nano-wires along with current-voltage characteristics and schematic depicting energy bands. Reprinted with permission from Park et al. (2013).
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