Manpower Policies for the Use of Science and Technology in Development. Pergamon Policy Studies on Socio-Economic Development

187 Pages·1980·2.174 MB·English

by  Charles V. Kidd (Auth.)

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PERGAMON ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC
POLICY
DEVELOPMENT
STUDIES
Manpower Policies
for the Use of
Science and
Technology
in Development
Charles V. Kidd
Peigamon Press
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Copyright © 1980 Pergamon Press Inc.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Kidd, Charles Vincent.
Manpower policies for the use of science and
technology in development.
(Pergamon policy studies)
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Manpower policy. 2. Economic development.
3. Technological innovations. 4. Education—Economic
aspects. I. Title.
HD5707.K52 331.Π 79-22597
ISBN 0-08-025124-2
All Rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means:
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Printed in the United States of America
List of Tables
1.1 Countries Designated by the United Nations as the
Least Developed Countries of the World 4
2.1 Africans as Percentage of Total Faculty in
Selected African Universities 15
2.2 Ten Major Host Countries of Foreign Students 17
2.3 Ten Major Developed Countries with the
Greatest Proportion of Foreign Students in
Relation to Total Higher Education Enrollment 18
2Λ Countries With the Most Foreign Students in
the United States in 1977 19
2.5 Fields of Study of Foreign Students, Undergraduate
and Graduate, 1975-76 20
5.1 Number of Authors Who Published in International
Scientific Journals, 1975, by Latin American Country 63
5.2 Gross Domestic Product Per Capita in Latin America
and Selected Industrialized Countries 66
5.3 Research and Scholarship Expenditures of the
National Research Council of Brazil and the
Foundation for Research Development of Sao Paulo, 1976 69
5Λ Indian R&D Expenditure, 1975-76 83
8.1 Index of Increases in Enrollment at Different
Levels of Education, 1960-1974 134
8.2 Average Annual Expenditures of the Ford Foundation
on Science and Technology and on University
Modernization 1961-70 and 1971-77 138
vii
Preface
Policies related to manpower must be an integral part of a plan for the
use of science and technology in development. Granting that everything
in development is interrelated, manpower development is fundamental
because without trained people, no other factor of production works at
all. Facilities and equipment are useless without trained people to
operate them. Technology is developed, transferred, and adapted by
trained people. For these reasons, conscious attention to the training of
people should be a prominent and primary part of every strategy of
development.
There is good reason to be concerned not only with manpower itself
but also with the nature, operation, and interrelationships of national
institutions for higher education and research. One of the most urgent
reasons for examining them is that the development of institutions is
most pressing from the point of view of the poorest and smaller
countries. An agenda that stresses such things as access to technology,
patent licensing, the conduct of research on food, housing, disease,
transportation, fertility, etc., is an agenda most relevant to the more
advanced developing countries. For the poorer developing countries,
such matters are significant but distinctly subordinate to the building of
institutions and the training of the cadres of persons who must be
available before indigenous people can deal with questions of substance.
A review of the many facets of education and training for the use of
science and technology in development must strike a compromise
between depth and breadth. Our decision was to be broad, in the belief
that a survey of the entire field, and relationships among the parts, is
more helpful than an intensive examination of a few problems. The
inevitable result of this approach is absence of detail, at least in the
eyes of those who are fully conversant with particular aspects of the
problems.
Value judgments, particularly on the quality of educational institu-
tions and research institutes, are scattered throughout the paper. These
are based for the most part on the observations of people whose
judgment I trust, and in lesser part, on my own observations.
ix
χ PREFACE
The temptation to wander from the manpower aspects of the uses of
science and technology in development into related fields, such as the
role of science and technology in development and the development of
educational institutions, has been consciously resisted. However, at
some places, forays into these broader fields seemed necessary to
illuminate the manpower issues.
Examples of problems, structures, and processes from Asia, Africa,
and Latin America provide points of comparison and contrast and
concrete examples to buttress summary observations and judgments
that appear in the paper. In that connection, the omission of the
People's Republic of China from this report may be noticed. This is
attributable to the fact that I unfortunately know too little about that
country. However, it takes little imagination to see China following
the path of scientific and technological development of such countries
as India and Brazil over the decades ahead.
The important question of the contribution of United States uni-
versities to the solution of manpower problems in developing countries
is thoroughly and competently discussed in The Role of U.S. Universi-
ties in Science and Technology for Development; Mechanisms and
Policy Options, by Robert Morgan of the Center for Development
Technology of the Department of Technology and Human Affairs of
Washington University, St. Louis.
I have drawn freely upon the excellent and comprehensive report of
the National Research Council, U.S. Science and Technology for Devel-
opment; A Contribution to the 1979 U.N. Conference (Department of
State, Washington, 1978). The reader will find many references to that
report in the text.
I have had the benefit of criticisms from a group of informed
persons from the United States at a meeting in Key Biscayne, Florida,
on July 20-21, 1978. Those in attendance at the Key Biscayne meeting
were:
Edmund T. Cranch John Thurston
President, Worcester Poly- Former Vice-President
technic Institute Institute of International
Education
Gordon Hiebert F. Champion Ward
Program Analyst Former Vice-President for
Division of International Education and Research
Programs Ford Foundation
National Science Foundation
Eldon Johnson Alfred C. Wolf
Former Vice-President Former Program Officer
University of Illinois Inter-American Development
Bank
Glenn Schweitzer
Associate Executive Director
Council on Science and Tech-
nology for Development
PREFACE xi
The parts of the book dealing with Latin America were reviewed by
Eduardo Oswaldo Cruz of Brazil, Carlos Monge of Peru, Luis Leloir of
Argentina, and Hernando Groot of Colombia. The text incorporates
their comments, but I am responsible for the final text.
The book also reflects discussions of a draft of this paper with
representatives from nine Asian countries (Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
India, Indonesia, Iran, Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, and Pakistan) who
attended the Asian Regional Seminar on the Contributions of Science
and Technology to National Development, New Delhi, October 4-6,
1978.
Special thanks are owed to Dr. Gordon Hiebert of the National
Science Foundation for helpful advice on the substance of the book and
on logistical and administrative problems.
I gratefully acknowledge the contributions of these astute and
experienced critics. The book is a better one because of their help, and
the deficiencies are my responsibility.
Robert Kahn, a student in the Graduate Program in Science,
Technology and Public Policy at George Washington University, was my
able research assistant during the project. He drafted much of the
material for the sections on multinational organizations and United
States aid policies, unearthed information and compiled data for all
parts of the report, and served as friendly critic.
The report was made possible by a generous grant (No. INT78-08297)
from the National Science Foundation. However, any opinions, findings,
and conclusions or recommendations in this report are those of the
author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States
government, including the National Science Foundation.
Glossary
AID Agency for International Development
AIT Asian Institute of Technology
CERN Centre Européen pour Recherche Nucléaire
COSTED Committee on Science and Technology in Developing
Countries
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (India)
DAAD Deutsche Academische Austausch Dienst
(German Academic Exchange Service)
DSIR Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization (U.N.)
GNP Gross National Product
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ICSU International Council of Scientific Unions
IIT Indian Institute of Technology
IRRI International Rice Research Institute
ITB Bandung Institute of Technology
IVIC Instituto Venezuelano de Investigaciones Cientificas
KAERI Korean Atomic Energy Research Institute
KAIS Korean Advanced Institute of Science
KIST Korean Institute for Science and Technology
METU Middle East Technical University
MRP Mediterranean Regional Project
NIH National Institutes of Health
NRC National Research Council (U.S.)
OAS Organization of American States
OECD Organization for European Cooperation and Development
OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
U.N. United Nations
UNAM Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNCSTAD United Nations Conference on Science and Technology for
Development
UNEP United Nations Environmental Program
UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural
Organization
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UPM University of Petroleum and Minerals
WHO World Health Organization
WMO World Meteorological Organization
xii
1 Framework and
Definitions
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MANPOWER FOR DEVELOPMENT
Human resources are simultaneously the ends and a central means of
national development. The welfare of people - human resources as
consumers - is the ultimate aim of development. At the same time, a
trained labor force - human resources looked at as producers - is an
indispensable factor of production. Finally, trained people typically
enjoy their work, and this gives the development of manpower a
cultural and human dimension. This book concentrates on a rather
narrow, but critically important, segment of human resources - the
manpower required for the effective application of science and tech-
nology for national development.
Effective training and use of manpower is an area of development
policy and practice in itself. Failure to address the problems in this
area will frustrate efforts to use science and technology for specific
goals, such as increasing industrial and agricultural output, elevating
the quality of life of the rural poor, or the acquisition, development,
and use of technology. A logical and primary goal of developing
countries is to build indigenous capability in manpower. The develop-
ment assistance policies of the United States should help with this goal
in ways discussed below.
The significance of manpower for development is widely recognized.
For example, virtually all of the country papers prepared for the U.N.
Conference on Science and Technology for Development (Vienna,
August 1979) stressed the importance of developing manpower as a
prime element of national policies for building indigenous economic
capacity. This was the central theme of many position papers prepared
for the conference, particularly by the poorer countries. The richer
developing countries tend to place relatively more weight on access to
technology. Both themes were prominent in the papers prepared by the
developed countries. For example, the United States paper noted that
1
2 MANPOWER POLICIES
the most direct transfer of technologies is essentially an adapta-
tion process that requires the existence of expertise - not only
on the part of the donor but on the part of the recipient as well.
. . . Educational and training activities in many fields are,
therefore, fundamental to the process of transferring and
adapting technologies^ 1)
The U.S. National Research Council, in its background paper for the
U.N. Conference, stressed that
two basic requirements must be met if a nation is to create
industrial technology that will foster the growth of the industrial
sector: 1) a supply of trained practitioners of industrial tech-
nology, including scientists, engineers, managers, technicians,
and a skilled labor force, and 2) a demand for their services.(2)
Yet in spite of acceptance of the idea that manpower development
is a critical element of general development policy, it has proved
extraordinarily difficult for both developing and developed countries to
translate the general principle into effective action.
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CLASSIFIED
For this book, all countries are considered developing except European
countries, the USSR, the United States, Canada, Japan, Israel, Aus-
tralia, New Zealand, and South Africa. However, this definition puts
countries with such extremely diverse characteristics in the "devel-
oping" category that a further classification is imperative. The training
and use of manpower for science and technology can be discussed by
distinguishing four groups of developing countries,-1) the poorest of the
poor, 2) the countries that are in the process of establishing structures
for science, technology, and education, 3) the advanced developing
countries, and 4) the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC), which form a group by themselves.
The assignment of developing countries to one of these categories is
clearly somewhat arbitrary. For example, Nepal is classified by the
United Nations as one of the poorest of the poor, yet it is in the process
of establishing a structure for science and technology. Countries are
named in this paper simply to help the reader think about the different
problems and opportunities that countries in the four groups face in
training manpower for the use of science and technology in develop-
ment.
The Poor Countries (3)
The poor group, according to the United Nations, includes 27 countries
with a combined population of 239 million or about 13 percent of the