Machine Intelligence: An International Bibliography with Abstracts of Sensors in Automated Manufacturing

234 Pages·1984·13.56 MB·English

by  Alan Gomersall M.Phil.

Machine Intelligence
An International Bibliography with Abstracts
of Sensors in Automated Manufacturing
Alan Gomersall
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
1984
laIC]
British Library Cataloguing Publication Data
Machine Intelligence.
1. Artificial intelligence - Bibliography
I. Gomersall, Alan
016.00153'5 Z7405.A 7
ISBN 978-3-662-12404-8 ISBN 978-3-662-12402-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-12402-4
<Cl 1984 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo in 1984
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1984
The work is protected by copyright. The rights covered by this are reserved, in
particular those of translating, reprinting, radio broadcasting, reproduction by
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tance shall be given to the publishers in accordance with §54, para 2, of the copy
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Typesetting by Fleetlines Typesetters, Southend-on-Sea
ii
Alan Gomersall, M.Phil., B.Sc.(Eng)., M.I.lnf.Sc.
Graduated as a mechanical engineer through London University and joined the English
Electric Co. Ltd. as an information officer. After six years lecturing in information
science at Leeds Polytechnic he is now Head of the Greater London Council Research
Library. Previous publications include: 'Thesaurafacet: A Classification and Thesaurus
for Science and Technology", "Traffic Noise: A Review and Bibliography" and
"Robotics Bibliography 1970-1981" compiled for IFS (Publications) Ltd. in 1981.
iii
Contents
A. GENERAL LITERATURE ON SENSORS
A. 1. Literature Reviews and Bibliographies 1
A.2. Reserach Reviews and Projections 4
A.3. Conferences 7
A.4. General Papers, Reviews, Books, Reports 10
B. NON-CONTACT SENSORS
B.1. Vision Sensors
B.1.1. General 17
B.1.2. Vision sensor research 20
B.1.3. Control and programming 23
B.1.4. Vision sensory feedback/signal processing 32
B.1.5. Hardware and auxiliary equipment 35
B.2. Vision Theory
B.2.1. General 44
B.2.2. Artificial intelligence 49
B.2.3. Pattern recognition 55
B.2.4. Image processing
B.2.4.1. General 60
B.2.4.2. Two-dimensional vision/binary vision 68
B.2.4.3. Three-dimensional vision 71
B.2.5. Colour vision 76
B.2.6. Edge detection 78
B.2.7. Scene analysis 80
B.3. Range Sensors
B.3.1. General 82
B.3.2. Laser sensors 82
8.3.3. Ultrasonic/acoustic sensors 86
B.4. Proximity Sensors
B.4.1. General 89
B.4.2. Electromagnetic, eddy current and infrared sensors 89
B.4.3. Fibre optic sensors 92
B.4.4. Fluidic, pneumatic and hydraulic sensors 93
B.5. Voice Control 97
C. CONTACT SENSORS
C.1. Tactile Sensors
C.1.1. General 101
C.1.2. Carbon fibre sensors 107
C.1.3. Force/torque sensors 108
C.1.4. Skin/slip sensors 113
C.2. Tactile Sensor Control
C.2.1. General 115
C.2.2. Compliance 117
C.2.3. Force feedback 119
v
D. GENERAL VISION SENSOR AND TACTILE SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
0.1. Combined Vision/factile Sensory Arrays 125
0.2. Sensor Control, Feedback and Programming 133
E. OPERATIONAL APPLICATION OF SENSORS
E.1. General Applications 139
E.2. Applications in Industry
E.2.1. Aerospace industry 145
E.2.2. Automotive industry 147
E.2.3. Electronics industry
E.2.3.1. General 151
E.2.3.2. Printed and integrated circuits 154
E.2.4. Foundry technology, steel industry
E.2.4.1. General sensor applications 158
E.2.4.2. Vision sensor applications 159
E.2.4.3. Contact sensor applications 162
E.2.5. Marine and undersea technology 163
E.2.6. Nuclear industry 164
E.2.7. Manufacturing industry
E.2.7.1. General industrial use of sensors 165
E.2.7.2. General industrial use of vision sensors 167
E.3. Applications in Processes
E.3.1. Assembly
E.3.1.1. Contact and non-contact sensors in assembly 172
E.3.1.2. Vision sensors in assembly 173
E.3.1.3. Contact sensors in assembly 177
E.3.1.4. Parts recognition 178
E.3.1.5. Parts positioning, locating and orientation 182
E.3.1.6. Vision sensors for parts transfer 187
E.3. 1.7. Contact sensors for parts transfer 189
E.3.1.8. Bin picking, bowl feeding 190
E.3.2. Inspection
E.3.2.1. General industrial inspection 194
E.3.2.2. Measurement and gauging 197
E.3.2.3. Quality control 201
E.3.2.4. Surface inspection, flaws and defect
identification 203
E.3.2.5. Testing (including non-destructive testing) 208
E.3.3. Production Engineering
E.3.3.1. General sensor applications 210
E.3.3.2. Vision sensor applications 211
E.3.3.3. Contact sensor applications 213
E.3.4. Welding and fabrication
E.3.4.1. General sensor applications 214
E.3.4.2. Vision sensor applications 216
E.3.4.3. Contact sensor applications 220
E.3.5. Finishing 221
AUTHOR INDEX 223
vi
Introduction
In 1981 Robotics Bibliography was published containing over 1,800 references on
industrial robot research and development, culled from the scientific literature over the
previous 12 years. It was felt that sensors for use with industrial robots merited a
section and accordingly just over 200 papers were included.
It is a sign of the increased research into sensors in production engineering that this
bibliography on both the contact and non-contact forms has appeared less than three
years after that first comprehensive collection of references appeared.
In a reviell''; in 1975 Professor Warnecke of IPA, Stuttgart drew attention to the lack
of sensors for touch and vision. Since then research workers in various companies,
universities and national laboratories in the USA, the UK, Italy, Germany and Japan
have concentrated on improving sensor capabilities, particularly utilising vision,
artificial intelligence and pattern recognition principles. As a result many research
projects are on the brink of commercial exploitation and development. This biblio
graphy brings together the documentation on that research and development,
highlighting the advances made in vision systems, but not neglecting the development
of tactile sensors of various types.
No bibliography can ever be comprehensive, but significant contributions from
research workers and production engineers from the major industrialised countries
over the last 12 years have been included.
Many major conferences and journals have been examined and selections made
from the large number of papers available and, if the emphasis in the bibliography
appears to be on vision sensors, this only reflects the predominant trend in research
over the past 10 years.
As in the Robotics Bibliography, references included have been restricted where
possible to those which are easily accessible through national document provision
services such as the British Library Lending Division in the UK and the National
Technical Information Service in the USA. Within anyone section references are
presented in chronological order.
In many cases it has been difficult to assess from the original papers whether or not
the sensor designs described are actually in industrial operation. Where a decision has
been difficult to make the tendency has been to include the design in an operational
application section.
vii
A
General Literature on Sensors
A.1. LITERATURE REVIEWS AND computer, learning machines, question answering
BIBLIOGRAPHIES systems, theorem proving and speech understanding.
Contains 172 abstracts and is a useful complement to
NT/S/PS -78/0026/1 GA which coverrobots.
A.1 . (1) Robot manipulators: sensors and
software. A.1. (5) Robots.
1972-January 1983 (Citations from the International Roth, B. Applied Mechanics Reviews, November 1978,
Aerospace Abstracts Data Base) (National Technical 31 ( 11) pp. 1 511-1 519.
Information Service, Springfield, VA). Rept. for 1972-
A diagram divides a robot's structure into five
Jan 83, Jan 1983, 143pp. (Rept. No. PB83-859132,
functional elements: control, manipulation, locomo
supersedes PB82-865577).
tion, sensing and thinking. Although most robots do
Contains citations concerning research and develop not contain all these functions, all robots have at least
ment in computer software for mathematical model two and the more advanced ones have at least three.
ling and synthesis, adaptive control of robotic The author discusses all of these areas, from an applied
manipulators, and optimal feedback control systems mechanics point of view, the first four being the most
for industrial robotics. Sensory control of robots, important. The article emphasises the mechanics
including internal and external sensory devices, is also aspects of these. Those interested in details regarding
discussed. (This bibliography contains 147 citations.) specific hardware and software are referred to the
bibliography and references. (74 refs.)
A.1 . (2) Use of sensors in programmable
automation. A.1. (6) Sensors for computer controlled
mechanical assembly.
Rosen, C. A. and Nitzan, D. (Stanford Research
Institute, USA). Computer, Dec 1977, 1O ( 12) pp. Wang, S. S. M. and Will, P. M. (IBM Thomas J. Watson
12-23. Also National Science Foundation Report Apr Res. Cent., Yorktown Heights NY). Ind. Robot, 1 Mar
1976. 36pp (PB80-124142). 1978, 5( 1) pp. 9-18.
Examines the need for sensors in visual inspection, The paper describes several sensors which are
finding parts and controlling manipulators. Describes applicable to the requirements of computer controlled
both contact and non-contact sensors, including assembly and manufacturing processes. Various new
proximity types. Visual or electro-optical sensors are types of sensors are presented including a multi
given some attention; there is also a useful bibliogra degree of freedom force sensor using interchangeable
phy of 59 references of research up to 1977.
modules, a pneumatic retractable whisker, an ultra
sonic probe, and various tactile and optical image
sensors. (30 refs.)
A.1. (3) Industrial robots - a bibliography.
Berg, B. (Aeronautical Research Inst., Sweden). The
Institute, 1974. A.1. (7) Application of robotic sensors:
700 references to the world literature. No abstracts. a survey and assessment.
Complements this bibliography on pre -19 74 research.
Boykin, W. H. and Diaz, R. G. (Florida Univ. Gainsville,
USA). (In, Advances in Computer Technology, Int.
A.1. (4) Artificial intelligence (a bibliography Computer Technology Cont., ASME Century 2
Emerging Technology Conf., Vol. 1, pp. 160-165, San
with abstracts).
Francisco, USA, 12-15 Aug. 1980).
Grooms, D. W. NTIS/PS-78/0024/6GA, 177 pp.
Sensors applicable to robotic manipulators were
(January, 1978).
surveyed and assessed. The assessment classified the
Supersedes NT/S/PS-77/0044, 75/397, and COM- sensors according to the basic wave length or physical
73-11714, covering natural language generation by spectrum. Includes photoreceptors, mechanoreceptors,
General Literature on Sensors
chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors and electromagnetic A.1. (13) Computer vision for automatic
receptors. (48 refs.) assembly and inspection.
1970-July 1982 (Citations from the Engineering
A.1. (8) Industrial robots and teleoperators Index Data Base). National Technical Information
June 1970-June 1980 (citations from the Service, Springfield, VA. Rept. for 1970-Jul. 82, Jul.
1982, 61 pp. Rept. No. PB82-870254.
Engineering Index Data Base).
Contains citations concerning studies and design of
Sassi, W. V. (New England Res. Applic. Center, Storrs,
equipment and techniques for automatic assembly and
USA). NERACEI NT0477, August 1980, 162 pp.
inspection in which computer vision plays an integral
(PB80-851132).
role. Computer vision in automated visual inspection
Contains 200 references on design, construction, can be performed even on high speed production lines
performance and economic effectiveness of robots. and enables an automated assembly system, such as
Various applications including welding, painting and the manipulators of an industrial robot, to orient the
assembly are also covered. part and to locate the position of the assembly item.
The citations cover both the hardware and software
components of the computer vision systems. A few
A.1. (9) Assessment of robotic sensors. citations refer to some specialized applications as
computer vision for security systems, mapping, and
Nitzan, D. (SRI International, Calif.). (In, Proc. 1s t
retrieval of parts from stock bins. (Contains 61
International Conference on Robot Vision and Sensory
citations.}
Controls, 1-3 April, 1981, Stratford-upon-Avon, UK,
organised by IFS (Conferences) Ltd., pp. 1-11).
Bedford, IFS (Publications) Ltd., 1981, 347 pp.
Review of the various types of robot sensor with a A.1. (14) Artificial intelligence.
useful bibliography covering image processing, tactile
1970-March 1983 (Citations from the Engineering
sensors, range and force/torque sensors and computer
Index Data Base). (National Technical Information
vision. (37 refs.)
Service, Springfield, VA). Rept. for 1970-Mar. 1983,
Mar. 1983,300 pp. PB83-861583; Supersedes PB82-
A.1. (10) Industrial robotics: bibliography. 871129.
Contains citations concerning artificial intelligence.
Lane, D. and Acland, J. Institution of Electrical
Topics include pattern recognition, theory and algo
Engineers, 1981. Unpaged.
rithms, image processing, automatic word processing,
Contains 226 references dealing with practical and computer aids in pattern recognition, talking and
general aspects of robots and their controls. In two answering systems, systems for the medical profes
sections, the first dealing with general issues, introduc sion, and robotics. Applications in the aerospace
tions to robotics and reviews, and the second with industry are also included. (Contains 350 citations.)
specific aspects and applications. Author and subject
keyword indexes are included. A number of references
cover sensor technology.
A.1. (15) Anatomy of industrial robots and
their controls.
A.1. (11) Robotics bibliography.
Luh, J. Y. S. IEEE Trans. Automatic Control, Feb. 1983
Gomersall, A. and Farmer, P. (Greater London Council).
AC-28 (2). pp. 133-153.
Bedford, IFS (Publications) Ltd., 1981. 190 pp.
Broad review which includes an account of sensory
Includes over 1,800 abstracted reports, conference
devices, compliance, vision, command languages etc.
papers, books and journal articles covering the
Useful for its 106 accurate references which include
development of industrial robots since 1970. Design
many papers on artificial intelligence, pattern recogni
and performance of robots and their components
tion, feedback, imaging, etc.
including sensors of all types are covered. A large
section includes papers on applications in assembly,
inspection, production engineering, welding and in the
aircraft, nuclear and marine industries.
A.1. (16) Artificial intelligence.
1972-March 1983 (Citations from the International
A.1. (12) Robots.
Aerospace Abstracts Data Base). (National Technical
1964-March 1982 (Citations from the NTIS Data Information Service, Springfield, VA). Rept. No. PB83-
Base) (National Technical Information Service). Rept. 861575 for 1972-Mar. 1983, Mar. 1983, 263 pp.
No. PB82-808395 May 1982, 250 pp. Supersedes Supersedes PB82-871161.
PB81-803215, and PB80-803836.
Contains citations concerning artificial intelligence.
Cites research on the design and application of Topics include pattern recognition theory and
robots. It includes studies on software development, algorithms, image processing, automatic word
memory models, and manipulation control algorithms. processing, computer aids in pattern recognition,
Also included are the many applications of robots and talking and answering systems, systems for the
space exploration applications. (This updated biblio medical profession, and robotics. (Contains 284 cita
graphy contains 243 citations.) tions.)
2
Literature Reviews and Bibliographies
A.1. (17) Computer vision for automatic role. Computer vision in automated visual inspection
assembly and inspection. can be performed even on high speed production lines.
Computer vision enables an automated assembly
1975-February 1983 (Citations from the International
system, such as the manipulators of an industrial robot,
Information Service for the Physics and Engineering
to orient the part and to locate the position of the
Communities Data Basel. (National Technical Informa
assembly item. The citations cover both the hardware
tion Service, Springfield, VA.) Rept. No. PB83-861112
and software components of the computer vision
for 1975-Feb. 83, Feb. 1983, 192 pp. (Supersedes
systems. Some citations refer to automatic image
PB82-870247.)
analysis systems which use computer vision to
Contains citations concerning studies and design of recognise specific patterns or textures for data collec
equipment and techniques for automatic assembly and tion purposes or for the sorting of parts. (Contains 187
inspection in which computer vision plays an integral citations.)
3
General Literature on Sensors
A.2. RESEARCH REVIEWS AND ducer affects the choice of a servo technique; the
PROJECTIONS nature of available control algorithms; and methods of
implementation of these algorithms.
Several types of implementations are discussed,
including the variation from hybrid to fully digital
A.2. (1) The first 10 years of artificial
control. Types of end-point control including position
intelligence research at Stanford.
control, trajectory control and resolved direction
control. Strategies employed at some companies and
(Stanford University, USA) Report No. AD776233,
recent work at several research centres are surveyed.
1973, 119 pp.)
Summarises accomplishments in computer vision
and control of manipulators, speech recognition, A.2. (5) Research activities at the Institute
heuristic programming, representation theory, of Production and Automation in the field of
mathematical theory of computation and modelling of robotics.
organic chemical processes. Bibliographies are
included in all research areas. Warnecke, H. J. and Schraft, R. D. (lnst. Prod. &
Automation, Stuttgart, West Germany). (In, Proc. 7th
ISIR Sponsored by Soc. Biomechanics and Japan
A.2. (2) Adaptable-programmable assembly Industrial Robot Assoc. pp. 25-35. 19-21 October,
systems: an information and control problem. 1977.) Tokyo, JIRA, 1977,655 pp.
Nevins, J. L. and Whitney, D. E. (Charles Stark Draper A review of the research projects undertaken by IPA,
Stuttgart University over the past ten years is pre
Lab. Inc., USA). Proceedings 10th International
sented in this paper. Amongst the projects investigated
Symposium Industrial Robots sponsored by Society
Manufacturing Engineers & Robot Institute of America, are market studies, test facilities, work-place analysis
and sensor development. A useful assessment of early
pp. 387-406, 22-24 September, 1975. Dearborn,
Society Manufacturing Engineers, 1975. work by the authors and their Institute.
It is assumed that technologically viable adaptable
assembly systems will be quite limited, supplementing A.2. (6) Standards and control technology
rather than replacing people. Such systems may be for industrial robots.
classified according to how much sensory information
they receive from their working environment (the Evans, J. M., Barbera, A. J. and Albus, J. S. (National
minimum being none) and how sophisticated are the Bureau of Standards). (In, Proc. 7th International
control loops and strategies which use this feedback to Symp. Industrial Robots, Tokyo, Japan, 19-21
accomplish assembly tasks. Systems of increasing October, 1977. Organised by Japan Industrial Robot
control and information level can be expected to Association, pp. 479-486). Tokyo, JIRA. 1977.
perform, with decreasing human involvement, 655 pp.
increasingly complex tasks. Analytical and experi
Discusses NBS developments in dynamic sensors
mental work to investigate these ideas are described.
and computer control leading to a hierarchical control
concept that provides a basis for robot classification for
developing higher level languages for programming
A.2. (3) Developments in programmable
robots and for interface standards. (8 refs.)
automation.
Rosen, C. A. and Nitzan, D. (Stanford Research Inst.,
A.2. (7) Industrial robots: looking forward to
USA). Manufacturing Engineering, September, 1975.
the third generation.
75(3)' pp. 26-30.
The authors indicate that robots previously limited Ferretti, M. Nouvel Automat. November, 1978, (2) pp.
to parts handling operations are growing in sophistica 315-327. In French.
tion and suggest that the reason is the advent of
Briefly surveys intelligent industrial robots provided
artificial intelligence. They consider the limitations of
with senses, such as sight and touch, controlled by
existing hardware and software, training and computer
microcomputers. Applications include control of
constraints, sensor controlled manipulation, path
assembly machine-tools.
control by co-ordinate transformation and training the
manipulator system. Visual, tactile sensing and pattern
A.2. (8) Industrial robots with sensors and
recognition are included.
object recognition systems. An overview.
A.2. (4) Computer control of robots Koehler, G. W. (Kernforschungszentrum, Karlsruhe,
a servo survey. W. Germany. Abt. Reaktorbetrieb und Technik.)
Rept. No. KFK 2571 Jan, 1978, 53 pp. (NTIS
Snyder, W. E. (North Carolina State Univ., USA), SME 79025561.) In German.
Technical Paper No. MR76-617, 13 pp. (1976).
The previous development and the present status of
Dearborn, Society Manufacturing Engineers, 1976.
industrial robots equipped with sensors and object
This paper covers recent past and state-of-the-art recognition systems are described. This type of equip
techniques in digital control of the servo systems ment allows flexible automation of many work
utilised in general purpose manipulators. The topics stations. A classification system facilitates an overview
mentioned include transducers for position and of the large number of technical solutions now avail
velocity information and how the choice of a trans- able. The possibilities of application of this equipment
4