Light Scattering Reviews 7: Radiative Transfer and Optical Properties of Atmosphere and Underlying Surface

261 Pages·2013·5.71 MB·English

by  Alexander A. Kokhanovsky (auth.)

Light Scattering Reviews 7
RadiativeTransferandOpticalPropertiesofAtmosphereand
UnderlyingSurface

Alexander A. Kokhanovsky (Editor)
Light Scattering
Reviews 7
Radiative Transfer and Optical Properties of
Atmosphere and Underlying Surface
Published inassociationwith
PPrraaxxiiss PPuubblliisshhiinngg
Chichester, UK
Dr Alexander A. Kokhanovsky
Institute of Environmental Physics
University of Bremen
Bremen
Germany
SPRINGER–PRAXIS BOOKS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES (LIGHT SCATTERING SUB-SERIES)
EDITORIALADVISORYBOARDMEMBER:DrAlexanderA.Kokhanovsky,Ph.D.,InstituteofEnvironmental
Physics,UniversityofBremen,Bremen,Germany
ISBN 978-3-642-21906-1 ISBN 978-3-642-21907-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-21907-8
Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012945183
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Contents
List of contributors ................................................ IX
Notes on the contributors ......................................... XI
Preface ............................................................XIX
Part I Light Scattering and Radiative Transfer
1 Light scattering by densely packed systems of particles:
near-field effects
Victor P. Tishkovets and Elena V. Petrova.............................. 3
1.1 Introduction.................................................... 3
1.2 Scattering of electromagnetic waves by a system of spherical particles.
Basic notions and equations ...................................... 5
1.3 Shielding of particles by each other in the near field ................. 9
1.3.1 Mutual shielding in simple systems of particles .............. 9
1.3.2 Mutual shielding of particles in chaotically oriented
large clusters ............................................ 14
1.4 Interaction of particles in the near field and the opposition phenomena 17
1.4.1 The field inhomogeneity near the scatterers ................. 17
1.4.2 Different scattering mechanisms: comparison of contributions
to the scattering characteristics of simple clusters ............ 22
1.4.3 Near-field effects in the large clusters ....................... 26
1.4.4 The near-field and weak-localization effects: the ranges
of influence.............................................. 29
1.5 Concluding remarks ............................................. 33
References .......................................................... 33
2 Multi-spectral luminescence tomography with the simplified
spherical harmonics equations
Alexander D. Klose .................................................. 37
2.1 Introduction.................................................... 37
2.2 Challenges in tissue optics ....................................... 39
2.2.1 Tissue scattering and absorption ........................... 39
2.2.2 Tomography and light source reconstruction................. 41
V
VI Contents
2.3 Methods of multi-spectral luminescence tomography................. 44
2.3.1 Radiative transfer model.................................. 44
2.3.2 Source reconstruction methods............................. 50
2.4 Applications.................................................... 54
2.4.1 Multi-spectral bioluminescence tomography ................. 54
2.4.2 Multi-spectral Cerenkov light tomography................... 56
2.4.3 Multi-spectral fluorescence tomography ..................... 57
2.5 Summary and Outlook .......................................... 59
References .......................................................... 61
3 Markovian approach and its applications in a cloudy atmosphere
Evgueni Kassianov, Dana E. Lane-Veron, Larry K. Berg,
Mikhail Ovchinnikov, and Pavlos Kollias................................ 69
3.1 Introduction.................................................... 69
3.2 Stochastic radiative transfer...................................... 71
3.3 Markovian cloud models ......................................... 75
3.3.1 Levermore–Pomraning model.............................. 75
3.3.2 Titov model............................................. 77
3.3.3 Generalized Titov model.................................. 79
3.4 Estimation of model parameters .................................. 83
3.4.1 Vertically-integrated statistics ............................. 83
3.4.2 Vertically-resolved statistics ............................... 85
3.5 Long-term and enhanced observational datasets..................... 88
3.5.1 Multi-year statistics ...................................... 88
3.5.2 Scanning cloud radar observations.......................... 90
3.6 Application of Markovian models ................................. 91
3.7 Summary ...................................................... 93
Appendix A: Markov processes and fields ............................... 95
Appendix B: Functions associated with ‘direct-beam’ exponential
components and asymptotic cases ................................. 97
Appendix C: Estimation of cloud statistics .............................. 98
List of abbreviations ................................................. 100
References .......................................................... 100
4 Database of optical and structural data for the validation of
forest radiative transfer models
Andres Kuusk, Mait Lang, and Joel Kuusk .............................. 109
4.1 Introduction.................................................... 109
4.2 Study site...................................................... 110
4.3 Instrumentation ................................................ 111
4.3.1 PROBA/CHRIS imaging spectrometer ..................... 111
4.3.2 Airborne spectrometer UAVSpec........................... 111
4.3.3 Spectrometer FieldSpec-Pro VNIR ......................... 112
4.3.4 Spectrometer GER-2600 .................................. 112
4.3.5 LAI-2000 plant canopy analyzer (Li-Cor).................... 112
4.3.6 Coolpix-4500 digital camera ............................... 112
4.3.7 Nikon total station DTM-332.............................. 112
4.3.8 Leica ALS50-II airborne laser scanner ...................... 113
Contents VII
4.4 Measurements .................................................. 113
4.4.1 Stand structure.......................................... 113
4.4.2 Spectroscopic measurements............................... 114
4.5 Data processing................................................. 117
4.5.1 Stand structure.......................................... 117
4.5.2 Leaf and needle optical properties.......................... 117
4.5.3 Correction of UAVSpec data .............................. 120
4.5.4 Satellite data............................................ 122
4.6 Data .......................................................... 127
4.6.1 Illumination conditions ................................... 127
4.6.2 Stands.................................................. 129
4.7 Concluding remarks ............................................. 143
References .......................................................... 145
Part II Optical Properties of Snow and Natural Waters
5 Reflection properties of snow surfaces
Teruo Aoki.......................................................... 151
5.1 Introduction.................................................... 151
5.2 Basic definitions and terminologies ................................ 153
5.3 Feedback effect between snow physical parameters and albedo ........ 155
5.4 Atmospheric effects on snow albedo ............................... 157
5.4.1 Radiative transfer model for the atmosphere–snow system..... 157
5.4.2 Aerosol and cloud effects on spectral surface albedo .......... 158
5.4.3 Effect of the difference in atmospheric type on spectrally
integrated albedo ........................................ 161
5.4.4 Aerosol and cloud effects on spectrally integrated albedo ...... 162
5.5 Effects of snow physical parameters on spectral albedo and
bidirectional reflectance.......................................... 165
5.5.1 Observational condition, instrumentation, and radiative
transfer model........................................... 165
5.5.2 Spectral albedo .......................................... 166
5.5.3 Observation of HDRF .................................... 170
5.5.4 Theoretical calculations of HDRF and comparison with the
measurements ........................................... 172
5.6 Effects of snow physical parameters on broadband albedos ........... 174
5.6.1 Instrumentation, observational condition, and radiative
transfer model........................................... 174
5.6.2 Effects of the snow grain size on broadband albedos .......... 176
5.6.3 Effects of the snow impurities on broadband albedos.......... 178
5.7 Concluding remarks ............................................. 179
References .......................................................... 182
VIII Contents
6 Measuring optical backscattering in water
James M. Sullivan, Michael S. Twardowski, J. Ronald, V. Zaneveld,
and Casey C. Moore.................................................. 189
6.1 Introduction.................................................... 189
6.2 Generic sensor description........................................ 191
6.3 Bead method calibration......................................... 192
6.3.1 Overview ............................................... 192
6.3.2 Determination of the weighting function, W(θ) .............. 193
6.3.3 Determining theoretical phase functions..................... 199
6.3.4 Experimental calibration and application.................... 199
6.3.5 Dependence of the scattering signal on attenuation ........... 200
6.4 Derivation of b from VSF measurements at single or multiple angles .. 201
b
6.5 Analysis of measurement uncertainties ............................ 205
6.5.1 Calibration.............................................. 205
6.5.2 Instrument resolution and electronic noise .................. 207
6.5.3 Long-term stability in background dark offsets (baseline noise). 208
6.5.4 Long-term stability in scaling factors ...................... 210
6.5.5 Environmentally induced uncertainties...................... 211
6.5.6 Conversion coefficient (χ factor) uncertainties ............... 214
6.5.7 Measurement uncertainty summary ........................ 215
6.6 Sensor comparisons in the field ................................... 216
6.7 Conclusions .................................................... 219
References .......................................................... 220
7 Molecular light scattering by pure seawater
Xiaodong Zhang ..................................................... 225
7.1 Introduction.................................................... 225
7.2 General theory of scattering ...................................... 226
7.2.1 Isotropic particles........................................ 226
7.2.2 Anisotropic particles ..................................... 230
7.2.3 Liquid solutions.......................................... 232
7.2.4 Seawater................................................ 233
7.3 Brief review and discussion....................................... 234
7.3.1 Density derivative........................................ 235
7.3.2 Depolarization ratio ...................................... 236
7.3.3 Effects of sea salts ....................................... 237
7.3.4 Other relevant issues ..................................... 239
7.4 Conclusions .................................................... 241
References .......................................................... 241
Index.............................................................. 245
List of Contributors
Teruo Aoki Andres Kuusk
Meteorological Research Institute Tartu Observatory
1-1 Nagamine 61602 T˜oravere
Tsukuba Estonia
Ibaraki 305-0052 [email protected]
Japan
[email protected] Joel Kuusk
Tartu Observatory
Larry K. Berg 61602 T˜oravere
Atmospheric Science & Global Change Estonia
Division [email protected]
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
PO Box 999, MSIN K9-24 Dana E. Lane-Veron
Richland, WA 99352 University of Delaware
USA College of Earth, Ocean, and
[email protected] Environment
114 B Robinson Hall
Evgueni Kassianov Newark, DE 19716
Atmospheric Science & Global Change USA
Division [email protected]
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
PO Box 999, MSIN K9-24 Mait Lang
Richland, WA 99352 Tartu Observatory
USA 61602 T˜oravere
[email protected] Estonia
[email protected]
Alexander D. Klose
Department of Radiology Casey C. Moore
Harkness Pavilion, 3rd Floor WET Labs, Inc.
180 Fort Washington Avenue 620 Applegate Street
New York, NY 10032 Philomath, OR, 97370
USA USA
[email protected] [email protected]
Pavlos Kollias Mikhail Ovchinnikov
McGill University Atmospheric Science & Global Change
Department of Atmospheric Division
and Oceanic Sciences Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
805 Sherbrooke Street West PO Box 999, MSIN K9-24
Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B9 Richland, WA 99352
Canada USA
[email protected] [email protected]
IX
X List of Contributors
Elena V. Petrova Michael S. Twardowski
Space Research Institute of RAS WET Labs, Inc., Department of Research
Profsoyuznaya 84/32 70 Dean Knauss Drive
117997, Moscow Narragansett, RI 02882
Russia USA
[email protected] [email protected]
James M. Sullivan J. Ronald V. Zaneveld
WET Labs, Inc. WET Labs, Inc.
70 Dean Knauss Road, 620 Applegate Street
Narragansett, RI 02882 Philomath, OR 97370
USA USA
[email protected] [email protected]
Victor P. Tishkovets Xiaodong Zhang
Institute of Radio Astronomy of NASU Earth System Science and Policy
4 Chervonopraporna Str. University of North Dakota
Kharkov, 61002 Grand Forks, ND 58202
Ukraine USA
[email protected] [email protected]