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Advanced Structured Materials Holm Altenbach Michael Johlitz Markus Merkel Andreas Öchsner Editors Lectures Notes on Advanced Structured Materials Advanced Structured Materials Volume 153 Series Editors Andreas Öchsner, Faculty of Mechanical and Systems Engineering, Esslingen University of Applied Sciences, Esslingen, Germany Lucas F. M. da Silva, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal Holm Altenbach , Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany Common engineering materials are reaching their limits in many applications, and new developments are required to meet the increasing demands on engineering materials. The performance of materials can be improved by combining different materials to achieve better properties than with a single constituent, or by shaping the material or constituents into a specific structure. The interaction between material and structure can occur at different length scales, such as the micro, meso, or macro scale, and offers potential applications in very different fields. This book series addresses the fundamental relationships between materials and their structure on overall properties (e.g., mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, or magnetic properties, etc.). Experimental data and procedures are presented, as well as methods for modeling structures and materials using numerical and analytical approaches. In addition, the series shows how these materials engineering and design processes are implemented and how new technologies can be used to optimize materials and processes. Advanced Structured Materials is indexed in Google Scholar and Scopus. · · Holm Altenbach Michael Johlitz · Markus Merkel Andreas Öchsner Editors Lectures Notes on Advanced Structured Materials Editors Holm Altenbach Michael Johlitz Fakultät für Maschinenbau Institut für Mechanik Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg Universität der Bundeswehr München Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany Neubiberg, Germany Markus Merkel Andreas Öchsner Institute for Virtual Product Development Faculty of Mechanical and Systems Aalen University of Applied Sciences Engineering Aalen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany Esslingen University of Applied Sciences Esslingen, Germany ISSN 1869-8433 ISSN 1869-8441 (electronic) Advanced Structured Materials ISBN 978-3-031-11588-2 ISBN 978-3-031-11589-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11589-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Preface The postgraduate seminar series “Advanced Structured Materials: Development— Manufacturing—Characterization—Applications” is designed to facilitate teaching and informal discussion in a supportive and friendly environment. The seminar provides a forum for postgraduate students to present their research results and train their presentation and discussion skills, allows for extensive discussion of current research being conducted in the wider area of advanced structured materials, builds a wider postgraduate community and offers networking opportunities for early career researchers. The first seminar was held in the period 28 February till 3 March 2022 in Malta. The four editors of this volume presented overview lectures related to composite mechanics, experimental mechanics of polymers, additive manufacturing and clas- sical plasticity theory. In addition, 21 postgraduate students attended this seminar and presented their actual research projects. This volume contains the peer-reviewed and revised versions of the submitted manuscripts. Magdeburg, Germany Holm Altenbach Neubiberg, Germany Michael Johlitz Aalen, Germany Markus Merkel Esslingen, Germany Andreas Öchsner June 2022 v Contents Part I Overview Lectures 1 Composite Mechanics ......................................... 3 Holm Altenbach 1.1 Preliminary Remarks ..................................... 3 1.2 Definitions, Classifications and Applications ................. 5 1.3 Laminated Plates ......................................... 8 1.3.1 Description of Material Behaviour .................. 8 1.3.2 Modelling Levels ................................. 8 1.3.3 Modelling Based on Volume and Mass Fraction ....... 9 1.3.4 Combination of Both Approaches ................... 10 1.3.5 Elementary Mixture Rules ......................... 11 1.3.6 Effective Properties of a Single Layer ................ 14 1.3.7 Improved Formulas for Effective Moduli ............. 19 1.4 Particle-Reinforced Composites ............................ 20 1.4.1 Short-fibre-Reinforced Plastics ..................... 20 1.4.2 Spherical Inhomogeneity with Interphase ............. 21 1.5 Functionally Graded Materials ............................. 23 1.6 Anti-Sandwich and Nanomaterials .......................... 24 1.7 Summary and Outlook .................................... 24 References .................................................... 24 2 Aspects in the Modelling of Heterogeneous Thermo-Oxidative Ageing Using the Example of a Rubber Buffer ................... 29 Bruno Musil and Michael Johlitz 2.1 Introduction ............................................. 29 2.2 Chemo-Thermo-Mechanical Simulation of a Rubber Buffer .... 31 2.2.1 Overview of the Quantities and Equations of the Material Model ............................. 31 2.2.2 Results and Discussion ............................ 37 2.3 Experimental Investigation on Self-heating in Connection with Ageing of a Rubber Buffer ............................ 40 vii viii Contents 2.4 Conclusion .............................................. 42 References .................................................... 42 3 Digital Product Development by Additive Manufacturing ......... 45 Markus Merkel, Mario Rupp, and Michael Sedlmajer 3.1 Introduction ............................................. 45 3.2 AM-Process Within Digital Product Development and Manufacturing ....................................... 46 References .................................................... 52 4 Theory of Three-Dimensional Plasticity ......................... 53 Andreas Öchsner 4.1 Comments on the Stress Matrix ............................ 53 4.2 Graphical Representation of Yield Conditions ................ 60 4.3 Yield Conditions ......................................... 64 4.3.1 Mises Yield Condition ............................. 65 4.3.2 Tresca Yield Condition ............................ 69 4.3.3 Drucker-Prager Yield Condition .................... 74 4.4 Flow Rule ............................................... 78 4.5 Hardening Rule .......................................... 78 4.5.1 Isotropic Hardening ............................... 78 4.5.2 Kinematic Hardening .............................. 79 References .................................................... 79 Part II Specialized Lectures 5 Influence of Silicon Content on the Mechanical Properties of Additively Manufactured Al-Si Alloys ........................ 83 Enes Sert, Philippe du Maire, Elmar Schuch, Leonhard Hitzler, Ewald Werner, and Andreas Öchsner 5.1 Introduction ............................................. 84 5.2 Experimental Methods .................................... 85 5.2.1 Sample Preparation ............................... 85 5.2.2 Chemical Analysis ................................ 86 5.2.3 Flowability ...................................... 86 5.2.4 Particle Size Distribution .......................... 87 5.2.5 Hardness ........................................ 88 5.2.6 Tensile Tests ..................................... 88 5.3 Results and Discussion .................................... 89 5.3.1 Chemical Analysis ................................ 89 5.3.2 Flowability ...................................... 89 5.3.3 Particle Size Distribution .......................... 91 5.3.4 Hardness ........................................ 92 5.3.5 Tensile Properties ................................. 93 5.4 Conclusions ............................................. 95 References .................................................... 95 Contents ix 6 Multi-step Additive Manufacturing Technologies Utilizing the Powder Metallurgical Manufacturing Route .................. 99 Arne Davids, Lukas Apfelbacher, Leonhard Hitzler, and Christian Krempaszky 6.1 Introduction ............................................. 100 6.2 Metal Additive Manufacturing ............................. 100 6.2.1 Single-Step AM Technologies ...................... 100 6.2.2 Multi-step AM Technologies ....................... 101 6.3 Summary ............................................... 112 References .................................................... 113 7 A Strategy to Extend the Limits of Unsupported Printing in Laser Powder Bed Fusion by Optimized Process Parameters Selection ..................................................... 119 Johannes Rottler, Christoph Petroll, Michael Johlitz, Kristin Paetzold, and Alexander Lion 7.1 Introduction and Motivation ............................... 120 7.2 Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process .......................... 120 7.3 Support Structure ........................................ 122 7.4 Methods for Minimizing Support Structure ................... 123 7.5 Selecting Process Parameters in LPBF ....................... 124 7.5.1 State-of-the-Art Parameter Selection ................. 125 7.5.2 Parameter-Based Strategy to Minimize Support ....... 126 7.6 Conclusion .............................................. 128 References .................................................... 128 8 Influence of Relative Humidity on Thermal Properties of Tool Steel Powder .................................................. 131 Garvin Schultheiss, Josef Tomas, and Markus Merkel 8.1 Introduction ............................................. 131 8.2 Methodology ............................................ 133 8.3 Experimental Setup ....................................... 134 8.4 Results ................................................. 134 8.5 Discussion .............................................. 136 8.6 Conclusion .............................................. 137 References .................................................... 137 9 An Overview on the 3D Printing of Elastomers and the Influence of Printing Parameters on Their Mechanical Properties .................................................... 139 Vivianne M. Bruère, Alexander Lion, Jens Holtmannspötter, and Michael Johlitz 9.1 Introduction ............................................. 139 9.2 Overview on Additive Manufacturing ....................... 141 9.2.1 Definition and Technologies ........................ 141 9.2.2 Elastomers in 3D Printing .......................... 143 x Contents 9.2.3 FFF with Elastic Materials ......................... 145 9.3 Applied Case on FFF with a TPU Filament .................. 147 9.3.1 Experimental Procedure ........................... 147 9.3.2 Results and Discussion ............................ 148 9.4 Conclusions ............................................. 151 References .................................................... 152 10 Effects of Reusing Polyamide 12 Powder on the Mechanical Properties of Additively Manufactured Parts .................... 155 Philippe du Maire, Enes Sert, Matthias Deckert, Michael Johlitz, and Andreas Öchsner 10.1 Introduction ............................................. 156 10.2 Methodology ............................................ 157 10.3 Results and Discussion .................................... 160 10.4 Conclusion .............................................. 164 References .................................................... 165 11 On the Influence of Perimeter, Infill-Direction and Geometry on the Tensile Properties of Test Specimen Manufactured by Fused Filament Fabrication ................................. 167 Julian Klingenbeck, Alexander Lion, and Michael Johlitz 11.1 Introduction ............................................. 167 11.2 Research Focus .......................................... 171 11.3 Experimental Setup and Results ............................ 172 11.4 Discussion of Tensile Test Results .......................... 174 11.5 Conclusion .............................................. 179 References .................................................... 180 12 Design of a Room-in-Room Laboratory Environment for the SLS Printing Process ................................... 183 Dominik Hahne, Alexander Lion, and Michael Johlitz 12.1 Motivation .............................................. 183 12.2 Mechanical Design of the Cabin ............................ 184 12.2.1 Design Structure .................................. 185 12.2.2 Structural Mechanics of the Cabin ................... 186 12.3 Thermal Concept ......................................... 189 12.4 Extraction System ........................................ 190 12.5 Summary ............................................... 192 References .................................................... 192 13 Chemical–Mechanical Characterization of Unaged and Aged Additively Manufactured Elastomers ........................... 193 Yvonne Breitmoser, Sebastian Eibl, Tobias Förster, Alexander Lion, and Michael Johlitz 13.1 Introduction ............................................. 193 13.2 Material ................................................ 194 13.3 Methods ................................................ 195