Learning to Think

200 Pages·1985·18.589 MB·English

by  E. R. Emmet

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2019 with funding from
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Learning to Think
BOOKS BY E. R. EMMET
BRAIN PUZZLER’S DELIGHT (PUBLISHED IN ENGLAND
AS “IOI BRAIN PUZZLERS)”
PUZZLES FOR PLEASURE
MIND TICKLING BRAIN ASERS
Learning to Think
E.R. EMMET
Formerly Assistant Master, Winchester College
TAPLINGER PUBLISHING COMPANY
New York
First paperback edition published in 1985 by
TAPLIN PUBLISHING CO., INC.
New York , New York
c E.R. Emmet, 1965, 1980
Published with permission from Emerson Books. Inc
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or
reproduced in any form or by any means whatsoever without
permission in writing, except by a reviewer who may quote
brief passages for inclusion in a newspaper, magazine, or
broadcast. Address inquiries to: Taplinger Publishing
Company, 132 West 22nd Street, New York, New York 10011
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Emmet, E. R. (Eric Revell)
Learning to think.
Reprint. Originally published: Buchanan, N.Y
Emerson Books, 1980
1. Thought and thinking. 2. Reasoning. I. Tite.
[B105.TS54E45 1985 ] 160 85-8157
ISBN 0-8008-4596-X (pbk.
Printed in the United States of America
Contents
Page
CHAPTER Introduction - Two Systems of Thinking 1
Study of basic principles might improve our thinking —How
the word “Log: as been used—Distinction between closed
and open systems of thinking—some closed system
examples considered
Exercises 1.1-1.16 7
Some open system examples considered and some principles
examined—difference between degree and kind of certainty
in open and closed sysiems
Exercises 1.17-1.31 19
Summary 23
CHAPTER 2. Rules 25
Importance of application of rules of thought and action—
some examples—important also to understand, analyse and
criticise rules—some intelligence test examples considered
—spotting the rule—alternative solutions
Exercises 2.1-2.16 30
Summary 35
CHAPTER 3. Classifications 37
Classification a basic preliminary to much thinking—
diagrams helpful
Exercise 3.1 38
Diagrams examined more closely—the idea of a class or set
—may or may not be clearcut—use of ‘some’ examined
Exercises 3.2-3.4 43
An example considered
Exercises 3.5-3.10 47
Extent to which classes are clear-cut examined more closely
—various criteria and purposes of classification
Learning to Think
Exercise 3.11 50
Exclusive and exhaustive classifications— universe of
discourse’—illustrated by diagrams
53
Exercises 3.12-3.15

Purposes of clas fication further examined—the limitations
of diagrams
56
Exercise 3.16
57
Summary
CHAPTER 4. Contradictories and Contraries
These terms defined—their relationship illustrated by
diagrams
Exercise 4.1 63
Antonyms may be either contradictories or contraries
Exercise 4.2 66
‘Either it is or it isn’t’ analysed
Exercises 4.3-4.7 69
Summary 71
CHAPTER 5_ Labels 73
Labels or words are attached to categories—language an
essential tool for thinking and communication—language

made by man—ostensive definition—classifications com-
bined—overlaps of meaning
76
Exercises 5.1-5.2
Verbal definition—abstract words— inevitable lack of pre-
cision—emotive use of words—-same word with different
meanings
84
Exercises 5.3-3.9
85
Summary
CHAPTER 6 | Statements 87
Misleading to consider sentences apart from context
Exercise 6.1 88
Different methods of conveying meanings in speech and
wriling— statement’ defined—some classif ication of

statements—Empirical—Analytic
Example 6.2
vi
Contents
Necessity and Certainty—Statements of fact and opinion—
taste and judgment—Value-Judgments—Examples
Exercise 6.3
97
Summary 98
CHAPTER 7 The Structure of Reasoning (1) 99
Necessary and suflicient conditions
Exercises 7.1-7.4 101
Converse—example considered
Exercises 7.5—7.7 103
Notations for not-p (p)—connections between ‘If p, then
q’. ‘It p, then q’, etc.; and necessary and sufficient conditions
“Only if...
Exercises 7.87.14 105
Necessity of link—Deduction and Induction defined—
Deduction examined
CHAPTER 8 The Structure of Reasoning (2) 111
Alternative ways of saying ‘If... then....—‘All... are...’
—notboth...and...’—'Either... or... or both’
Exercise 81 113
An example considered
Exercises 8.2-8.8 114
Syllogisms—not useful to try to put all arguments in
syllogistic form
Exercises 8.9-8.11 117
Different purposes of ‘If... then...’ Rules and Regulations
—Cause and effect
Exercise 8.12 120
Summary of chapters 7 and 8 120
CHAPTER 9 Open System Thinking 123
Open system thinking the most important—some basic
principles—Ends and Means—thinking needed for both—
short-term and long-term ends—Understanding the world—
idea of cause—Why and How—final and efficient causes
Exercise 9.1 129
vii
Learning to Think
Distinction between final and efficient blurred—what counts
as satisfactory explanation
130
Exercise 9.2
Causal chains—observation and experience—same causes
produce same effects but not the other way round—causes
traced in particular cases—examples considered
136
Exercises 9.3-9.10
Concommitant characteristics—causal connections—sig-
nificant correlation—characteristics may be due to each
other or to common cause—characteristics may be ill-
defined, generalisations loose
143
Exercise 9.11
143
Summary
CHAPTER 10 _ Probability, Prediction and Control 145
Mathematical definition of ‘ Probability’—assumption of
equally likely events—examples considered
Exercises 10.1-10.9 148
Closer examination of ‘equally likely’ —inevitable cir-
cularity—how large a deviation is significant?—limitations
of mathematical theory— what the odds really are’—
expectations— Certain’ and ‘Probable’ examined—not sen-
sible to think of certainty and probability as being ‘in the
events”
Exercise 10.10 155
Prediction—mathematical theory of probability may help
—predictions affecting what is predicted
Exercise 10.11 157
Control-~a main object of understanding and predicting—
problems endless—some general remarks

Summary
Miscellaneous Exercises
viii