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Series C: Mathematical and Physical Sciences - Vol. 551 Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics for Astronomy edited by N. Ageorges European Southern Observatory, Santiago, Chile and c. Dainty Imperial College, Blackett Laboratory, London, United Kingdom Springer-Science+Business Media, B.Y. Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics for Astronomy Cargese, France September 29-0ctober 10, 1997 A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-90-481-5492-0 ISBN 978-94-015-9624-4 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-015-9624-4 Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2000 Origina11y published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2000. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 2000 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. TADLE OF CONTENTS Preface ........................................................... xiii List of Participants .................................................. xv Chapter 1 OPTICAL EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE J.e. Dainty 1 A Primer on Statistics and Random Processes 1 2 Kolmogorov Turbulence 3 3 Field Correlation and Phase Structure Function 4 4 Strehl Ratio, Marechal Criterion 7 5 Zemike Expansion of Kolmogorov Turbulence 8 6 Angle-of-Arrival Statistics 13 7 Long-and Short-Exposure Transfer Functions 15 8 Temporal Behaviour of Atmospheric Turbulence 17 9 Angular Anisoplanatism 19 10 Conclusion 21 Chapter 2 ADAPTIVE OPTICS WITH LASER GUIDE STARS: BASIC CONCEPTS AND LIMITATIONS ................................................. 23 A. Quirrenbach 1 Introduction 23 2 The Formation of Artificial Guide Stars 24 3 The Tilt Determination Problem 25 4 Focal Anisoplanatism 30 5 Properties of the Sodium Atom and Sodium Layer 32 6 Sodium Guide Star Brightness 35 7 Laser Technology for Sodium Guide Stars 37 8 Practical Considerations 40 9 Laser Guide Star Experiments and Operational Systems 41 10 An Example: the ALFA System 43 11 Astronomy with Adaptive Optics and Laser Guide Stars 46 Chapter 3 THE PHYSICS OF THE somUM ATOM ................................ 51 E.J. Kibblewhite I Introduction 51 2 Sodium in the Mesosphere 51 v vi 3 All You Need to Know about Atomic Physics 52 4 Saturation ofthe Sodium Atom in the Radiation Field 55 5 Radiation Pressure 57 6 Optical Pumping 57 7 Calculation ofthe Return Flux from the Layer for a Single Frequency Laser 60 8 Return Flux for Different Laser Spectral and Pulse Formats 62 9 Summary and Conclusions 65 Chapter4 THE DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE OF LASER SYSTEMS FOR GENERATING somUM BEACONS ................................... 67 EcJward Kibblewhite 1 Introduction 67 2 How Small Can We Make the Laser Beacon? 67 3 Saturation Properties of the Laser at the Sodium Layer 73 4 Lasers for the Generation of Sodium Beacons 74 4.1 CW Dye Lasers -(UCIUAlMax Planck) 74 4.2 Pulsed Dye Lasers 75 4.3 Sum-Frequency Lasers 76 5 Laser Field Tests 81 5.1 Laser Beacon Profile at the Layer 81 5.2 Return Flux for the Sodium Beacon 83 5.3 Optical Pumping Effects 84 6 Estimation ofthe Beacon Position for the Gemini South Telescope 85 7 System Issues 87 Chapter 5 LASER GUIDE STAR OPERATIONAL ISSUES .......................... 89 c.E. Max 1 Introduction 89 2 Operational Implications for the Laser System 90 2.1 Rayleigh Scattering 90 2.2 Focus Changes 92 2.3 Variations in Sodium Column Density 93 2.4 Requirement to Nod the Telescope for Infra-Red Observing 93 3 Calibration of the Adaptive Optics System for Sodium Laser Guide Star Operation 94 3.1 Types of Internal Calibration Sources 96 3.2 Static Calibration 96 3.3 Auxiliary Wavefront Sensors 97 3.4 Dynamic Calibration (Real-Time Point-Spread-Function Measurements) 98 4 Safety Considerations Regarding Laser Guide Star Systems 99 Vll 4.1 Laser Eye Safety 100 4.2 Fire Safety 100 4.3 Aircraft Avoidance 101 4.4 Spacecraft Damage Avoidance 102 4.5 Laser Coordination on Multi-Telescope Summits 103 5 Conclusions 104 Chapter 6 THE CONE EFFECT ................................................ 107 R. Foy 1 Introduction 107 2 What is the Cone Effect? 108 3 Parameters and Astrophysical Implications 109 4 Multiple LGS: Stitching Method 112 5 Multiple LGSs: the 3D-Mapping Method 114 5.1 Hypotheses 115 5.2 Telescope to Laser Spot Array Approach 115 5.3 Laser Spot Array to Telescope Approach 118 5.4 The Inversion 119 5.5 Modal Approach 119 6 Spot Array Geometry and Field 119 7 Conclusion 122 Chapter 7 LASER GUIDE STAR ADV ANCED CONCEPTS: TILT PROBLEM ......... 125 Roberto Raggazoni 1 The Framework 125 2 Searching for New Ideas 126 3 Tuning the Parameters 128 4 Looking for Non-Standard Tiny Effects 129 5 LGSs in a New Perspective 134 5.1 A Statistical Approach 135 5.2 Gauging with a Natural Guide Star 138 6 A Few Remarks about Thinking Globally 142 7 Experimental Verifications 144 8 Future Directions 145 Chapter 8 THETILTPROBLEM-MULTIWAVELENGTH ......................... 147 R. Foy 1 Introduction: What is the Tilt Problem 147 2 Methods to Measure the Tilt 148 2.1 Use of a Natural Guide Star 148 2.2 The Dual Adaptive Optics Concept 150 3 Principle ofthe Polychromatic Artificial Star 151 viii 3.1 Required Photon Flux 153 3.2 Rayleigh and Raman Scattering 154 3.3 The Excitation ofthe 4P3/2 Energy Level ofMesospheric Sodium Atoms 154 4 Excitation ofthe 4P3/2 Atomic Level of Sodium 155 4.1 The 3SI/2 -+ 4P3/2 Absorption 156 4.2 The 3SI/2 -+ 4Ds/2 : Non-Resonant Two-Photon Absorption 156 4.3 Saturations 157 4.4 Integration Time 158 4.5 Laser Power 159 5 From the Theory to the Experiments: PASS 159 5.1 Description of the PASS Experiment 160 5.2 Results and Discussion 160 5.3 The Power Balance between the Two Beams 163 6 From the Experiment to a Full Demonstration: ELP-OA 163 6.1 Atomic Physics 164 6.2 Lasers 164 6.3 Optics 164 6.4 Infrastructure 165 6.5 Integration 165 6.6 Measurements and Analysis 166 7 Conclusion 166 Chapter 9 SKY COVERAGE WITH LASER GUIDE STAR SYSTEMS ON 8m TELEScOPES .................................................. 169 M Le Louarn 1 Introduction 169 2 Sky Coverage Computation 170 2.1 AO System Model 170 2.2 Statistical Sky Coverage 175 2.3 Sky Coverage: Object-Counts 177 3 Conclusion 182 Chapter 10 GROUND BASED ASTRONOMY WITH ADAPTIVE OPTICS ............. 185 Stephen T. Ridgway 1 Introduction 185 2 The Investment in Adaptive Optics 185 3 Does Adaptive Optics Work? 186 4 Where Are the Adaptive Optics Systems 188 5 What Will Adaptive Optics 00 for Astronomy? 188 6 Sensitivity and Speed of Observations with Adaptive Optics 189 6.1 Raw Sensitivity 189 6.2 Multiobject Observations 192 ix 7 The Isoplanatie Pateh 192 8 The Point Spread Funetion 192 9 What about Photometry? 193 10 Coronography, Nulling, Super AO and Speekle 194 11 Adaptive Opties and Speetroseopy 196 12 How Adaptive Opties Will Make the Rieh Rieher 196 13 How Mueh is Adaptive Opties Used 197 14 What Does Natural Guide Star Adaptive Opties Offer Astronomers? 197 14.1 Correetion of Statie Aberrations 198 14.2 Painless Foeus 198 14.3 Tilt Correetion 199 14.4 Resolution Irnprovement near Suffieiently Bright Stars 200 15 Why Not Higher Order Correetion? 200 16 Laser Beaeons 200 17 Partial Adaptive Correetion 202 18 Seienee Results from Adaptive Opties 203 19 A Closer Look at Adaptive Opties Scienee 204 19.1 Young Stars 205 19.2 Solar System 206 19.3 Extragalaetie and Galaetie Center 207 19.4 Binary Stars and Star Clusters 208 19.5 Compaet Nebulae and Cireurnstellar Shells 209 19.6 Summary of Scienee Direetions 210 20 Future Direetions in Adaptive Optics 210 20.1 Natural Guide Star Adaptive Opties 211 20.2 Sodiurn Beaeon Adaptive Opties 211 20.3 Rayleigh Beaeon Adaptive Opties 211 20.4 Adaptive Optics for Partial Correetion 212 20.5 Low Altitude Turbulenee 212 20.6 Adaptive Secondaries 213 21 Summary 213 Chapter 11 POLARIMETRIC MEASUREMENTS AND DECONVOLUTION TECHNIQUES ..................................................... 219 N. Ageorges 1 Introduetion 219 2 Polarimetrie Measurements 219 2.1 Introduetion 219 2.2 Observational Mode 220 2.3 How to Calibrate the Data 221 2.4 Analysis of the Data 222 2.5 Results and Conclusion 228 3 Post-Proeessing of Adaptive Opties Data: Reeovery ofDiffraetion Limited Images 230 x 3.1 Introduction: Why Are Deconvolution Techniques Needed? 230 3.2 What Does Exist? 230 3.3 Why Is It Different for Adaptive Optics? 236 3.4 New Methods WeIl Adapted to Adaptive Optics Data 236 Chapter 12 MEASURING ASTEROIDS WITH ADAPTIVE OPTICS .................. 243 Jack D. Drummond 1 Introduction 243 2 Ellipses from a Triaxial Ellipsoid 246 2.1 Basic Formulae 246 2.2 Useful Relationships 247 3 Fitting the Ellipse 250 3.1 A Mean Ellipse 250 3.2 The Fourier Domain 251 4 A Triaxial Ellipsoid from Ellipses 254 4.1 Residuals for Least Squares Fitting 254 4.2 Derivatives for Least Squares Fitting 256 4.3 Final Calculations 257 5 Summary 259 Chapter 13 THE ENVIRONMENTS OF YOUNG STARS ............................ 263 T.P. Ray 1 Introduction 263 2 The Early Years 263 3 The T Tauri and Herbig AelBe Stars 268 4 HH Flows from Young Stars 271 5 Disks around YSOs 277 6 A Few Examples ofHow AO Could Help Our Understanding ofYSOs 279 Chapter 14 DISTANT (RADIO) GALAXIES: PROBES OF GALAXY FORMATION ..... 285 Huub Rottgering 1 Introduction 285 2 Lookback Time and Redshift 286 3 Main Questions 288 3.1 Galaxy Evolution and Formation 288 3.2 Active Galactic Nuclei: Quasars, Radio Galaxies 288 4 Normal Galaxies at z - 3 290 4.1 Models of Galaxy Formation 290 5 Distant Radio Galaxies 293 5.1 Cygnus A 295 5.2 Search for High Redshift Radio Galaxies 297 5.3 Properties ofHigh-z Radio Galaxies 298
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