Kinyarwanda and Kirundi Comparative Grammar

396 Pages·2007·2.611 MB·English

by  R. David Zorc, Louise Nibagwire

Kinyarwanda and Kirundi
Comparative Grammar
R. David Zorc
and
Louise Nibagwire
Dunwoody Press’s Bantu language series
• Intermediate Swahili Newspaper Reader (1984)
John B. K. Rutayuga, John D. Murphy
• Elementary Swahili Newspaper Reader (1985)
Agnes Musyoki, John D. Murphy
• Lingala-English Dictionary (1995)
Lumana Pashi, Alan Turnbull
• Sotho Newspaper Reader, Reference Grammar and Lexicon (1998)
R. David Zorc, Paul Mokabe
• Kiswahili Language & Culture: A Textbook (1999)
Lioba J. Moshi
• Lingala Parallel Texts (2002)
David R. Woods
• Rwanda-Rundi Newspaper Reader (2002)
Louise Nibagwire, R. David Zorc
• Xhosa Newspaper Reader and Lexicon (2002)
Julian Lloyd, Linda Murphy-Marshall;
R. David Zorc, Series Editor since 1998
• Shona Newspaper Reader and Reference Grammar (2003)
Aquilina M. Mawadza
• Zulu Newspaper Reader (2004)
Derek F. Gowlett; Edited by R. David Zorc
• Kinyarwanda and Kirundi Comparative Grammar (2007)
R. David Zorc, Louise Nibagwire
Kinyarwanda and Kirundi
Comparative Grammar
R. David Zorc
and
Louise Nibagwire
2007
Dunwoody Press
Kinyarwanda and Kirundi Comparative Grammar
Copyright © 2007 by McNeil Technologies, Inc.
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ISBN: 978-1-931546-32-4
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Printed and bound in the United States of America
Table of Contents
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................................................................................a
Acknowledgments...............................................................................................................................................................................................i
Preface ................................................................................................................................................................................................................iii
A Note on the Rendering of Bantu Language Names in English....................................................................................................iii
Differences in Interpretation or Treatment............................................................................................................................................iv
Abbreviations......................................................................................................................................................................................................ix
Resources..............................................................................................................................................................................................................xi
1. Overview of Bantu Grammar...................................................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Major Rwanda-Rundi Differences....................................................................................................................................................1
1.1.1. Difference Spelling System.........................................................................................................................................................1
1.1.2. Minor Differences in Word Formation...................................................................................................................................2
1.1.3. Differences in Noun Class..........................................................................................................................................................2
1.1.4. Differences in Word Pairs...........................................................................................................................................................3
1.1.5. Same Words with Different Meaning.....................................................................................................................................3
1.1.6. Completely Different Words......................................................................................................................................................4
1.1.7. Different Grammatical Constructions.....................................................................................................................................4
1.2. Writing vs. Speech.................................................................................................................................................................................6
1.2.1. Homonyms, Homographs, and Homophones....................................................................................................................6
1.2.2. Conjunctive Writing.....................................................................................................................................................................9
1.3. Strong vs. Weak Noun Classes........................................................................................................................................................10
1.4. Sound Changes.....................................................................................................................................................................................12
1.5. The Makeup of Words (Root, Stem, Number of Syllables)....................................................................................................12
1.6. Learning Words Together..................................................................................................................................................................13
1.7. Multiple Word Units...........................................................................................................................................................................13
1.8. Major Grammatical Categories.......................................................................................................................................................14
1.8.1. Person..............................................................................................................................................................................................14
1.8.2. Gender............................................................................................................................................................................................17
1.8.3. Class or Noun Groups...............................................................................................................................................................18
1.8.4. Number...........................................................................................................................................................................................19
1.8.5. Case..................................................................................................................................................................................................20
1.8.6. Inflection.........................................................................................................................................................................................21
1.8.7. Derivation: The Makeup of Word Families........................................................................................................................21
1.9. Irregularities...........................................................................................................................................................................................22
1.10. Using a Rwanda-Rundi Dictionary..............................................................................................................................................22
2. The Sound System........................................................................................................................................................................................23
2.1. Consonants.............................................................................................................................................................................................23
2.2. Vowels.....................................................................................................................................................................................................26
2.2.1. Short Vowels.................................................................................................................................................................................27
2.2.1.1. Initial Vowels Are Usually Short....................................................................................................................................27
2.2.1.2. Final Vowels Are Usually Short......................................................................................................................................28
2.2.1.3. Shortening of Long Vowels..............................................................................................................................................28
2.2.1.4. The Rwanda Suffix /-aga/..................................................................................................................................................28
2.2.2. Long Vowels..................................................................................................................................................................................29
2.2.2.1. Vowel Sequences Become Long....................................................................................................................................29
2.2.2.2. The Presentative Demonstrative Prefix Has a Long Vowel...................................................................................29
2.2.2.3. Lengthening of a Short Vowel after Possessives or Connectives..........................................................................29
2.2.2.4. Lengthening of a Short Vowel after Certain Markers...............................................................................................29
2.2.2.5. Long Vowels Next to Complex Consonants..............................................................................................................30
2.2.2.6. Long Vowels Follow by a Nasal and a Consonant..................................................................................................30
2.2.2.7. Not All Digraphs Are Complex Consonants..............................................................................................................31
2.2.2.8. Palatalized Labials Can Be Followed by Long or Short Vowels...........................................................................31
2.2.2.9. Lengthening of a Short Vowel before a First Person Object..................................................................................31
2.2.2.10. Lengthening of a Vowel after Negator nt-.................................................................................................................31
2.3. Allophones (Alternate Pronunciation of Sounds).......................................................................................................................32
2.4. Tonality and Intonation......................................................................................................................................................................33
2.4.1. Root Tonality [abr: R].................................................................................................................................................................34
2.4.2. Low Tonality [abr: L]..................................................................................................................................................................35
2.4.3. Obligatory High Tonality [abr: T]...........................................................................................................................................36
2.4.4. Postradical Syllabic Tonality (Second Syllable of the Root) [abr: P]............................................................................36
2.4.5. Postradical Moraic Tonality (Second Moraic of the Root) [abr: P2]............................................................................36
2.4.6. Borrowed Noun Tonality [abr: B]...........................................................................................................................................37
2.4.7. Vocative Tonality for Low-Tone Roots [abr: Voc]............................................................................................................37
2.4.8. Jump to the Right Tonality [abr: J]..........................................................................................................................................38
2.4.9. Mobile Tonality or Leftward Tone Shift [abr: M]...............................................................................................................38
2.4.10. Tone Dissimilation or Flip-flop [abr: D]............................................................................................................................38
2.4.11. Obejct Verb ("Skipping") Tonality [abr: O].......................................................................................................................39
2.4.12. Two Object Postradical Tone Rule [abr: O2]..................................................................................................................39
2.4.13. None-stable Initial Tone [abr: N].........................................................................................................................................40
2.4.14. First Vowel after a Consonant [abr: 1]...............................................................................................................................40
2.4.15. Tone on Second Mora of Word [abr: 2]............................................................................................................................40
2.4.16. Tone on First Mora after Prefix [abr: A].............................................................................................................................41
2.4.17. Tone on Second Mora after Prefix [abr: A2].....................................................................................................................41
2.4.18. High Tone after Prefix, if Allowed [abr: H]......................................................................................................................42
2.4.19. High Tone on Affix [abr: F]....................................................................................................................................................42
2.4.20. Subject Relative Tonality [abr: U]........................................................................................................................................42
2.4.21. Reflexive /íi-/ Tone Pattern [abr: I].......................................................................................................................................42
2.4.22. High Tone on Final or End Syllable [abr: E].....................................................................................................................43
2.4.23. High Tone on Second Syllable from End [abr: E2].........................................................................................................43
2.4.24. High Tone on Third Syllable from End [abr: E3].............................................................................................................43
2.4.25. Elimination of Two High Tones in a Row [abr: X].........................................................................................................43
2.5. Sound Changes (Morphophonemics)............................................................................................................................................44
2.5.1. Consonant Voice Dissimilation (Dahl's Law)....................................................................................................................44
2.5.2. Nasal Assimilation......................................................................................................................................................................46
2.5.3. Murmuring of Voiceless Stops after Nasals.........................................................................................................................46
2.5.4. Consonant Strengthening after a Nasal.................................................................................................................................46
2.5.5. Deaffrication after a Nasal........................................................................................................................................................47
2.5.6. Nasal Harmony (Ganda Law, Meinhof's Law)..................................................................................................................47
2.5.7. Palatal Consonant Change or Mutation...............................................................................................................................47
2.5.8. Palatalization of Fricatives Across a Syllable Boundary..................................................................................................48
2.5.9. Consonant Loss or Deletion (Change to Zero)...................................................................................................................48
2.5.10. Vowel Loss or Deletion...........................................................................................................................................................49
2.5.10.1. Loss of the Pre-prefix........................................................................................................................................................49
2.5.10.2. Loss of Final Non-round Vowels.................................................................................................................................49
2.5.10.3. Loss of /a/, /i/ or /u/ before Another Vowel..............................................................................................................49
2.5.10.4. Three or More Morae Are Shortened to Two..........................................................................................................50
2.5.11. Vowel Coalescence..................................................................................................................................................................50
2.5.12. Vowel Gliding (Vowels Change to Semivowels)...........................................................................................................50
2.5.13. Vowel Harmony........................................................................................................................................................................51
2.5.14. Syllable Addition.......................................................................................................................................................................52
2.5.15. Syllable Deletion or Truncation............................................................................................................................................53
2.5.16. Sound Switching or Metathesis.............................................................................................................................................53
2.5.17. Reduplication..............................................................................................................................................................................53
3. Nouns...............................................................................................................................................................................................................56
3.1. Noun Groups or Classes....................................................................................................................................................................56
3.1.1. Problems with Semantic Classes............................................................................................................................................56
3.1.2. The Tonality of Nouns................................................................................................................................................................59
3.1.2.1. Maintaining the Tonality of the Root [Rule]................................................................................................................60
3.1.2.2. High Tone on the Second Mora of the Root [P2rule]..............................................................................................60
3.1.2.3. High Tone Introduced Immediately Following the Noun Prefix [Arule]..........................................................60
3.1.2.4. High Tone on the Second Syllable of the Root [Prule]............................................................................................61
3.1.2.5. Borrowed Tonality [Brule]................................................................................................................................................61
3.1.2.6. High Tone on the Final Syllable [Erule].......................................................................................................................61
3.1.2.7. High Tone on the Second Last Syllable [E2rule].......................................................................................................62
3.1.2.8. High Tone on the Third Last Syllable [E3rule]...........................................................................................................62
3.2. Characteristics of the Noun Classes...............................................................................................................................................63
3.2.1. Group 1 - Bantu Classes 1 and 2............................................................................................................................................63
3.2.1.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 1............................................................................................................................63
3.2.1.2. Derivations in Group 1......................................................................................................................................................64
3.2.1.3. Loans in Group 1.................................................................................................................................................................65
3.2.1.4. The Grammar of Group 1 Nouns..................................................................................................................................65
3.2.1a. Group 1a - Personal Names & Kin Terms....................................................................................................................67
3.2.1a.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 1a........................................................................................................................67
3.2.1a.2. Derivations in Group 1a.................................................................................................................................................68
3.2.1a.3. Loans in Group 1a............................................................................................................................................................70
3.2.2. Group 2 - Bantu Classes 3 and 4............................................................................................................................................70
3.2.2.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 2............................................................................................................................70
3.2.2.2. Derivations in Group 2......................................................................................................................................................72
3.2.2.3. Loans in Group 2.................................................................................................................................................................73
3.2.2.4. The Grammar of Group 2 Nouns..................................................................................................................................73
3.2.3. Group 3 - Bantu Classes 5 and 6............................................................................................................................................74
3.2.3.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 3............................................................................................................................75
3.2.3.2. Derivations in Group 3......................................................................................................................................................77
3.2.3.3. Loans in Group 3.................................................................................................................................................................78
3.2.3.4. The Grammar of Group 3 Nouns..................................................................................................................................78
3.2.4. Group 4 - Bantu Classes 7 and 8............................................................................................................................................80
3.2.4.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 4............................................................................................................................80
3.2.4.2. Derivations in Group 4......................................................................................................................................................82
3.2.4.3. Loans in Group 4.................................................................................................................................................................84
3.2.4.4. The Grammar of Group 4 Nouns..................................................................................................................................84
3.2.5. Group 5 - Bantu Classes 9 and 10.........................................................................................................................................87
3.2.5.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 5............................................................................................................................87
3.2.5.2. Derivations in Group 5......................................................................................................................................................89
3.2.5.3. Loans in Group 5.................................................................................................................................................................90
3.2.5.4. The Grammar of Group 5 Nouns..................................................................................................................................90
3.2.5a. Group 5a - No Nasal in the Prefix.......................................................................................................................................91
3.2.5b. Group 5b - Singular Zero (Ø-) Prefix, Plural zaa-...........................................................................................................92
3.2.6. Group 6 - Bantu Classes 11 and 10.......................................................................................................................................93
3.2.6.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 6............................................................................................................................93
3.2.6.2. Derivations in Group 6......................................................................................................................................................95
3.2.6.3. Loans in Group 6.................................................................................................................................................................96
3.2.6.4. The Grammar of Group 6 Nouns..................................................................................................................................96
3.2.7. Group 7 - Bantu Classes 12 and 13.......................................................................................................................................98
3.2.7.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 7............................................................................................................................98
3.2.7.2. Derivations in Group 7......................................................................................................................................................98
3.2.7.3. Loans in Group 7...............................................................................................................................................................100
3.2.7.4. The Grammar of Group 7 Nouns................................................................................................................................100
3.2.8. Group 8 - Bantu Classes 14 and 6.......................................................................................................................................101
3.2.8.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 8..........................................................................................................................101
3.2.8.2. Derivations in Group 8....................................................................................................................................................102
3.2.8.3. Loans in Group 8...............................................................................................................................................................104
3.2.8.4. The Grammar of Group 8 Nouns................................................................................................................................104
3.2.9. Group 9 - Bantu Classes 15 and 6.......................................................................................................................................106
3.2.9.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 9..........................................................................................................................106
3.2.9.2. Derivations in Group 9 Are the Verbal Noun Subclass (9a)...............................................................................106
3.2.9.3. No Loans in Group 9 and above..................................................................................................................................107
3.2.9.4. The Grammar of Group 9 Nouns................................................................................................................................107
3.2.10. Group 10 Locative - Bantu Class 16.................................................................................................................................109
3.2.10.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 10.....................................................................................................................109
3.2.10.2. Derivations in Group 10...............................................................................................................................................109
3.2.10.3. The Grammar of Group 10 Nouns...........................................................................................................................109
3.2.11. Group 11 - Bantu Class 17..................................................................................................................................................111
3.2.11.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 11.....................................................................................................................111
3.2.11.2. Derivations in Group 11...............................................................................................................................................112
3.2.11.3. The Grammar of Group 11 Nouns...........................................................................................................................112
3.2.12. Group 12 - Bantu Class 18...................................................................................................................................................114
3.2.13. Group 13 - Bantu Class 23...................................................................................................................................................114
3.2.13.1. Semantic Characteristics of Group 13.....................................................................................................................114
3.2.13.2. Derivations in Group 13...............................................................................................................................................115
3.2.13.3. The Grammar of Group 13 Nouns...........................................................................................................................115
3.3. How Nouns Are Formed (Noun Derivations)..........................................................................................................................115
3.4. The Forms of the Noun....................................................................................................................................................................119
3.5. Irregular Nouns...................................................................................................................................................................................121
3.5.1. Irregular in Formation..............................................................................................................................................................121
3.5.2. No Plural......................................................................................................................................................................................121
3.5.3. No Singular..................................................................................................................................................................................122
3.5.4. Jumping of Classes....................................................................................................................................................................122
3.6. Noun Cases..........................................................................................................................................................................................123
3.6.1. Subject (Nominative)................................................................................................................................................................123
3.6.2. Object (Accusative)...................................................................................................................................................................123
3.6.3. Possessive or Attributive (Genitive) - Noun Phrase Agreement Markers.................................................................125
3.6.3.1. The Tonality of Possessive Constructions..................................................................................................................125
3.6.3.2. The Meaning or Use of Possessive Constructions...................................................................................................126
3.6.3.3. Norminalized Possessive Constructions....................................................................................................................128
3.6.4. Locative.........................................................................................................................................................................................129
3.6.4.1. The Preposition i................................................................................................................................................................130
3.6.4.2. The Preposition mu (muu, mw', murí).......................................................................................................................132
3.6.4.3. The Preposition ku (kuu, kw', k', kurí)........................................................................................................................133
3.6.4.4. The Preposition kwaa.......................................................................................................................................................135
3.6.5. Vocative........................................................................................................................................................................................135
3.6.5.1. Truncated Noun Vocatives.............................................................................................................................................135
3.6.5.2. Reduced Noun Vocatives...............................................................................................................................................136
3.6.6. Agentive (Passive Agent).........................................................................................................................................................138
4. Pronouns.......................................................................................................................................................................................................139
4.1. Emphatic or Long Form Pronouns................................................................................................................................................141
4.2. Subject Pronouns................................................................................................................................................................................144
4.3. Object Pronouns................................................................................................................................................................................145
4.4. Possessive Pronouns..........................................................................................................................................................................147
4.4.1. Norminalized Possessive Pronouns.....................................................................................................................................152
4.5. Relative Pronouns..............................................................................................................................................................................154
4.6. Locative Pronouns..............................................................................................................................................................................155
4.7. Vocative Pronouns.............................................................................................................................................................................156
4.8. Indefinite Constructions...................................................................................................................................................................157
4.9. Distributive Pronouns.......................................................................................................................................................................159
4.10. Enumerative Pronouns...................................................................................................................................................................159
4.10.1. Singulative -'nyéne {Rundi}, -'nyiné {Rwanda} 'Alone, Only'..................................................................................159
4.10.2. Dual -mpi {Rundi}, -mbi {Rwanda} 'Both'......................................................................................................................161
4.10.3. Total -se {both} 'All, Each, Every'.......................................................................................................................................162
4.10.4. 'Another of the Same vs. Different Kind (-ndi)...............................................................................................................163
4.10.4.1. High Tone on the Second Mora after the Prefix (Mrule)....................................................................................163
4.10.4.2. High Tone on the First Mora (Arule).........................................................................................................................164
4.10.4.3. High Tone on the Final Mora (Rrule).......................................................................................................................165
4.10.4.4. Low Tone throughout....................................................................................................................................................165
4.11. Similative (Adverbial) Pronouns.................................................................................................................................................166
4.12. Conjunctive Pronouns....................................................................................................................................................................167
5. Demonstrative Pronouns (Deictics)....................................................................................................................................................169
5.1. Form 1 - First Person (-VCV)..........................................................................................................................................................170
5.2. Form 2 - First Person Affective (-no)............................................................................................................................................172
5.3. Form 3 - First and Second Person (-rya)......................................................................................................................................173
5.4. Form 4 - Second Person (-VCo).....................................................................................................................................................174
5.5. Form 5 - Second Person Past (-aa)................................................................................................................................................176
5.6. Form 6 - Third Person (-riiya).........................................................................................................................................................177
5.7. Form 7 - Invariable Anaphoric Deictic (nyaa) {Rundi only}................................................................................................179
5.8. The Tonality of Inflected Demonstratives..................................................................................................................................180
6. Adjectives & Other Descriptives.........................................................................................................................................................181
6.1. The True Adjective Class.................................................................................................................................................................181
6.2. The Attribute Use of a Noun..........................................................................................................................................................184
6.3. Qualifying Demonstratives (Deictics).........................................................................................................................................185
6.4. Relative Verbs Used to Qualify Nouns.......................................................................................................................................185
6.5. Attributive Verbs with -ek- or -ik-................................................................................................................................................185
6.6. Expressing Degrees of Comparison..............................................................................................................................................186
7. Numerals (Number Systems) & Enumeration.................................................................................................................................189
7.1. Cardinal Numbers.............................................................................................................................................................................189
7.2. Ordinal Numerals..............................................................................................................................................................................196
7.3. Adverbial Use of Numbers.............................................................................................................................................................198
7.4. Units of Time.......................................................................................................................................................................................198
7.5. Enumeratives.......................................................................................................................................................................................201
8. Verb Conjugations.....................................................................................................................................................................................202
8.1. Indicative..............................................................................................................................................................................................209
8.1.1. Indicative Immediate................................................................................................................................................................209
8.1.2. Indicative Recent........................................................................................................................................................................212
8.1.3. Indicative Preterit.......................................................................................................................................................................214
8.1.4. Indicative Conditional..............................................................................................................................................................217
8.1.5. Indicative Future.........................................................................................................................................................................220
8.1.6. Indicative Conditional Future {Rwanda only}..................................................................................................................221
8.1.7. Indicative Persistive...................................................................................................................................................................222
8.1.8. Indicative Inceptive...................................................................................................................................................................223
8.1.9. Indicative Narrative...................................................................................................................................................................224
8.2. Participial..............................................................................................................................................................................................225
8.2.1. Participial Immediate...............................................................................................................................................................225
8.2.2. Participial Recent.......................................................................................................................................................................226
8.2.3. Participial Preterit.......................................................................................................................................................................228
8.2.4. Participial Conditional.............................................................................................................................................................230
8.2.5. Participial Future........................................................................................................................................................................231
8.2.6. Participial Conditional Future {Rwanda only}..................................................................................................................232
8.2.7. Participial Persistive..................................................................................................................................................................232
8.2.8. Participial Inceptive...................................................................................................................................................................233
8.3. Relative..................................................................................................................................................................................................234
8.3.1. Relative Immediate...................................................................................................................................................................236
8.3.1.1. Subject Relative Immediate {Rwanda only}..............................................................................................................238
8.3.2. Relative Recent...........................................................................................................................................................................239
8.3.2.1. Subject Relative Recent {Rwanda only}.....................................................................................................................240
8.3.3. Relative Preterit..........................................................................................................................................................................241
8.3.3.1. Subject Relative Preterit {Rwanda only}.....................................................................................................................242
8.3.4. Relative Conditional.................................................................................................................................................................243
8.3.4.1. Subject Relative Conditional {Rwanda only}............................................................................................................244
8.3.5. Relative Future............................................................................................................................................................................245
8.3.5.1. Subject Relative Future {Rwanda only}......................................................................................................................246
8.3.6. Relative Conditional Future {Rwanda only}......................................................................................................................247
8.3.6.1. Subject Relative Conditional Future {Rwanda only}..............................................................................................248
8.3.7. Relative Persistive......................................................................................................................................................................248
8.3.7.1. Subject Relative Persistive {Rwanda only}.................................................................................................................250
8.3.8. Relative Inceptive or Punctual...............................................................................................................................................251
8.3.8.1. Subject Relative Inceptive {Rwanda only}.................................................................................................................251
8.4. Autonome.............................................................................................................................................................................................252
8.4.1. Autonome Immediate..............................................................................................................................................................252
8.4.2. Autonome Recent......................................................................................................................................................................254
8.4.3. Autonome Preterit.....................................................................................................................................................................255
8.4.4. Autonome Conditional............................................................................................................................................................257
8.4.5. Autonome Future.......................................................................................................................................................................258
8.4.6. Autonome Conditional Future {Rwanda only}.................................................................................................................259
8.4.7. Autonome Persistive.................................................................................................................................................................260
8.4.8. Autonome Inceptive.................................................................................................................................................................261
8.5. Subjunctive...........................................................................................................................................................................................262
8.5.1. Immediate Subjunctive............................................................................................................................................................262
8.5.2. Future Subjunctive.....................................................................................................................................................................264
8.5.3. The Gerund Construction.......................................................................................................................................................264
8.6. Infinitive................................................................................................................................................................................................266
8.7. Imperative.............................................................................................................................................................................................268
8.7.1. Imperatives with -a....................................................................................................................................................................269
8.7.2. Imperatives with -e....................................................................................................................................................................269
8.8. Jussive (-ii) {Rwanda only}...............................................................................................................................................................270
8.9. Hortative...............................................................................................................................................................................................271
8.9.1. Hortative Immediate (-ra-∆-a) {Rundi}, (-ra-∆-e) {Rwanda}.........................................................................................271
8.9.2. Hortative Future (-ra-zoo-∆-a) {Rundi}, (-ra-zaa-∆-e) {Rwanda}.................................................................................271
8.10. Optative..............................................................................................................................................................................................271
8.10.1. Optative Affirmative (-ra-ka-, -ra-ga-, -ra-k-) {both}.....................................................................................................272
8.10.2. Optative Affirmative (-áa-ká-, -óo-ká-) {Rwanda only}...............................................................................................272
8.10.3. Optative Affirmative (ø-ka-∆-e) {Rwanda only}............................................................................................................272
8.10.4. Optative Affirmative Expressions (ø-nya-ku-∆-a)..........................................................................................................273
8.10.5. Optative Negative (nti-S-ka-∆-e)........................................................................................................................................273
8.11. Exclamative Constructions {Rwanda only}.............................................................................................................................274
8.12. Sequence or Subsecutive Constructions...................................................................................................................................274
8.13. Reflexive (íi-) {both}........................................................................................................................................................................278
8.14. Valence (Verb Augments or Extensions)..................................................................................................................................279
8.14.1. Benefactive or Applicative (-ir-, -er-, -irir-, -erer-).........................................................................................................280
8.14.2. Causative (-iish-, -eesh-)........................................................................................................................................................282
8.14.3. Causative or Factitive (+y-)...................................................................................................................................................283
8.14.4. Reciprocal, Mutual, or Associative Verbs (-an-)............................................................................................................285
8.14.5. Attributive or Stative (-ik-, -ek-)...........................................................................................................................................286
8.14.6. Reversives (Transitive -uur-, -oor-; Intransitive -uuk-, -ook-).....................................................................................287
8.14.7. Intensive or Repetitive (-agur-, -agir-, -agagur-, -agar-)...............................................................................................288
8.14.8. Durative or Frequentative (-iriz-, -erez-)..........................................................................................................................288
8.14.9. Multiple Augments.................................................................................................................................................................289
8.15. Voice (Passive)..................................................................................................................................................................................290
8.16. Irregular Verbs..................................................................................................................................................................................291
8.16.1. The Possessive Verbs..............................................................................................................................................................292
8.16.2. The Cognitive Verbs...............................................................................................................................................................292
8.16.3. The Comparative Verbs........................................................................................................................................................293
8.16.4. The Prohibitive Verb..............................................................................................................................................................294
8.17. Copulative Verbs.............................................................................................................................................................................294
8.17.1. The Invariable Predicative Copulatives (ni, si)...............................................................................................................294
8.17.2. The Locative Copulative (-rí)...............................................................................................................................................295
8.17.3. The Monosyllabic Copulative (-bá, -báaye)....................................................................................................................296
9. Negatives......................................................................................................................................................................................................298
9.1. Indicative & Subjunctive Negative (nti-, nt-, si-)......................................................................................................................298
9.2. Dependent Negative (-ta-, -da-, -t-)..............................................................................................................................................299
9.3. Predicative Negatives.......................................................................................................................................................................300
9.3.1. Indicative Predicative Negative (nta, ntaa)........................................................................................................................300
9.3.2. Participial Predicative Negative (ntáa {Rwanda}, atá {Rundi})....................................................................................302
9.3.3. Relative Predicative Negative (ntáa {Rwanda}, ata, ataa {Rundi}).............................................................................303
9.4. Invariable Copulative Negative (si, s').........................................................................................................................................304
9.5. Invariable Negatives (Adverbs, Interjections)............................................................................................................................305
10. Auxiliary Verbs........................................................................................................................................................................................306
10.1. Coverbs...............................................................................................................................................................................................306
10.1.1. Quotative Coverb...................................................................................................................................................................306
10.1.2. Deictic Coverbs of Manner..................................................................................................................................................306
10.1.3. Interrogative Coverbs of Manner........................................................................................................................................308
10.2. Auxiliary Verbs.................................................................................................................................................................................309
10.2.1. Auxiliary Verbs Governing the Participial......................................................................................................................310
10.2.2. Auxiliary Verbs Governing the Infinitive.........................................................................................................................311
10.2.3. Auxiliary Verbs Governing the Subjunctive...................................................................................................................313
10.2.4. Auxiliary Verbs Governing the Indicative Disjoint with -ra-....................................................................................313
10.2.5. Auxiliary Verbs Governing the Simple Indicative........................................................................................................314
10.2.6. Auxiliary Verbs Governing the Subsecutive or Sequence with -ka-.......................................................................314
10.3. Copulative Auxiliary Verbs..........................................................................................................................................................315
10.4. Multiple Auxiliary Verbs...............................................................................................................................................................318
11. Adverbs.......................................................................................................................................................................................................319
11.1. Adverbs of Time...............................................................................................................................................................................319
11.2. Adverbs of Place..............................................................................................................................................................................320
11.3. Adverbs of Manner.........................................................................................................................................................................320
11.4. Adverbs of Degree or Intensity....................................................................................................................................................320
11.5. Adverbs of Measure, Quantity, or Frequency........................................................................................................................321
11.6. Adverbs of Opinion........................................................................................................................................................................321
11.7. Adverb Derivation...........................................................................................................................................................................321
11.7.1. Adverbs of Comparison (nka-)............................................................................................................................................321
11.7.2. Adverbs Marked by na-.........................................................................................................................................................321
11.7.3. Adverbs Derived from Nouns.............................................................................................................................................322
12. Conjunctions and Coordination.........................................................................................................................................................323
12.1. Coordinating or Non-Influencing Conjunctions....................................................................................................................323
12.2. Subordinating Conjunctions.........................................................................................................................................................325
12.2.1. Conjunctions Governing the Relative...............................................................................................................................325
12.2.2. Conjunctions Governing the Participal............................................................................................................................326
12.2.3. Conjunctions Governing the Infinitive.............................................................................................................................327
12.2.4. Conjunctions Governing the Subjunctive.......................................................................................................................327
12.2.5. Conjunctions Governing the Indicative...........................................................................................................................328
13. Interrogatives and Question Words.................................................................................................................................................329
13.1. The Overall Structure of Question Sentences........................................................................................................................329
13.2. 'Who?' - Person Noun Interrogative (ndé, baandé)..............................................................................................................330
13.3. 'What?' (invariable /ikí/ or root /-kí/).........................................................................................................................................330
13.4. 'What kind or sort of ?' (invariable /kí/)....................................................................................................................................331
13.5. 'Which (of two or several)?' (-:he)..............................................................................................................................................332
13.6. 'When?' - Time Interrogative (ryáarí)........................................................................................................................................333
13.7. 'Where?' - Place Interrogative (hé and héehé)......................................................................................................................334
13.8. 'How much?, How many?' - Numerical Interrogative.......................................................................................................334
13.9. 'How?' - Coverb (-té, Adverbial of Manner)...........................................................................................................................335
13.10. 'Why?' - Reason Interrogative...................................................................................................................................................335