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Bardi, Anat, Calogero, Rachel M. and Mullen, Brian (2008) A new archival
approach to the study of values and value-behavior relations: Validation
of the value lexicon. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93 (3). pp. 483-497.
ISSN 0021-9010.
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JournalofAppliedPsychology Copyright2008bytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation
2008,Vol.93,No.3,483–497 0021-9010/08/$12.00 DOI:10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.483
A New Archival Approach to the Study of Values and Value–Behavior
Relations: Validation of the Value Lexicon
Anat Bardi, Rachel M. Calogero, and Brian Mullen
UniversityofKent
Thepresenteffortemploysanewarchivalapproachtostudyvaluesandvalue–behaviorrelations,which
islikelytobeparticularlyusefulinappliedsettings.Avaluelexiconwasdevelopedonthebasisofthe
Schwartz (1992) value theory to extract lexical indicators of values from texts. The convergent,
discriminant,andpredictivevalidityofthismeasurewasestablishedusingAmericannewspapercontent
from1900to2000vis-a`-visexistingself-reportmeasuresofvaluesandobjectiveindicatorsofvalue-
expressivebehaviors.Resultsprovideempiricalsupportfortheuseofthevaluelexicontostudyvalues
and value–behavior relations. First, the value lexicon demonstrated convergence with self-report re-
sponsesofvalues.Second,valuesinAmericannewspaperswereassociatedwithobjectiveindicatorsof
their corresponding value-expressive behaviors compared with noncorresponding value–expressive
behaviors. Third, patterns of values over this 101-year period exhibited meaningful fluctuations with
majorhistoricalandpoliticalevents.Thediscussiondescribesnewpossibilitiesforfutureresearchon
valuesinmanyappliedsettingswiththevaluelexicon.Thediscussionalsosuggeststhattheprinciples
ofthevaluelexiconcouldbeadoptedtomeasureotherpsychologicalconstructsofinteresttoapplied
psychology.
Keywords:values,behavior,archivalresearch
Rokeach(1973)proposedthatvaluescanbeusedasaunifying seems important to be able to measure values and behavior in a
concept across all the sciences concerned with social behavior. way that would facilitate examination of these relations across
Values (e.g., achievement, conformity) are defined as relatively appliedsettingsandacrosstimeandplace.
stable,broadgoalsthatguidepeople’sperceptions,attitudes,and Much of the research on values and behaviors has relied on
behaviorsacrosstimeandcontexts(e.g.,Allport,1961;Rokeach, self-reportresponses.Whereasaself-reportparadigmusuallycan
1973;Schwartz,1992).Oneofthemostcomprehensiveandrobust bejustifiedinstudyingvalues(e.g.,Borkenau&Ostendorf,1987;
theoriesofvaluesistheSchwartz(1992)valuetheory.Thistheory Rohan, 2000), it has limitations in certain circumstances (see
defines10broad,cross-culturallyrecognizedvaluesbasedonthe Podsakoff,MacKenzie,Lee,&Podsakoff,2003,forreview).First,
particular motivational goal that underlies each value (see Table self-report questionnaires are prone to response biases, such as
1). The Schwartz value theory has established predictive validity social desirability and consistency biases (see Podsakoff et al.,
across samples, outcome variables, languages, and cultures (see 2003,foranextensivereview).Second,theyareanobtrusiveand
review in Schwartz & Bardi, 2001). Furthermore, this theory has labor-intensive method for measuring values across time and
been shown to significantly predict behavior across a variety of place. Finally, it is impossible to administer self-report question-
applied settings. For example, values predicted making sugges- naires “to measure the subjective states of people long dead”
tionsforimprovementatwork(Lipponen,Bardi,&Haapama¨ki,in (McGuire,1976,p.175),althoughthistypeofdatacouldinform
press),reactionstoproceduraljusticeallocationatwork(Fischer& knowledgeaboutvalue–behaviorrelationshistoricallyandacross
Smith, 2004), buying environmentally friendly products (Grunert timeandreal-worldsettings.Thus,developingameasureofindi-
&Juhl,1995),politicalvoting(Caprara,Schwartz,Capanna,Vec- vidualvaluesthatdoesnotrelyontheadministrationofself-report
chione, & Barbaranelli, 2006), and counselees’ behavior during questionnaires is crucial for contexts in which it is undesirable,
careercounseling(Sagiv&Schwartz,2004).Clearly,onthebasis impractical,orimpossibletoadministeraquestionnaire.
of this prior research, an understanding of values and value– Thecurrentarticlepresentsanewarchivalapproachthatcould
behavior relations in applied settings is important. It therefore be particularly useful in such contexts. First, the rationale for
developing a value lexicon is described, and the primary aims of
this research are summarized. Next, the method used to validate
Anat Bardi, Rachel Calogero, and Brian Mullen, Department of Psy- the value lexicon is delineated. Specifically, this section explains
chology,UniversityofKent,Canterbury,UnitedKingdom. thedevelopmentofthevaluelexiconusingAmericanEnglishand
WeacknowledgewithgreatsadnesstheuntimelydeathofBrianMullen the strategy used to establish convergent, discriminant, and pre-
during work on this article. The article reflects his legacy regarding the
dictivevalidityofthevaluelexicon.Next,weestablishthelexical
importanceofarchivalresearch.
co-occurrenceamongthesameanddifferentvaluewordscompris-
WethankDominicAbramsandDirkJanssenfortheirinvaluablecom-
ing the value lexicon. We establish the convergent and discrimi-
mentsonpreviousdraftsofthisarticle.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Anat nantvalidityofthevaluelexicontomeasurepatternsofindividual
Bardi, Department of Psychology, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent valuesbyexaminingitsconvergencewiththestructureofindivid-
CT27NP,UnitedKingdom.E-mail:[email protected] ualvaluesmeasuredbytraditionalself-reportmethods.Inaddition,
483
484 BARDI,CALOGERO,ANDMULLEN
Table1
Definitionsofthe10ValuesBasedonMotivationalTypesandItemsThatMeasureThem
Value Definition
Power Socialstatusandprestige,controlordominanceoverpeopleandresources(socialpower,authority,wealth).
Achievement Personalsuccessthroughdemonstratingcompetenceaccordingtosocialstandards(successful,capable,ambitious,influential).
Hedonism Pleasureandsensuousgratificationforoneself(pleasure,enjoyinglife,self-indulgent).
Stimulation Excitement,novelty,andchallengeinlife(daring,avariedlife,anexcitinglife).
Self-direction Independentthoughtandaction-choosing,creating,exploring(creativity,freedom,independent,curious,choosingowngoals).
Universalism Understanding,appreciation,toleranceandprotectionofthewelfareofallpeopleandofnature(broadminded,wisdom,social
justice,equality,aworldatpeace,aworldofbeauty,unitywithnature,protectingtheenvironment)
Benevolence Preservationandenhancementofthewelfareofpeoplewithwhomoneisinfrequentpersonalcontact(helpful,honest,
forgiving,loyal,responsible).
Tradition Respect,commitmentandacceptanceofthecustomsandideasthattraditionalcultureorreligionprovidetheself.(humble,
acceptingmyportioninlife,devout,respectfortradition,moderate)
Conformity Restraintofactions,inclinations,andimpulseslikelytoupsetorharmothersandviolatesocialexpectationsornorms
(politeness,obedient,self-discipline,honoringparentsandelders).
Security Safety,harmonyandstabilityofsociety,ofrelationships,andofself(familysecurity,nationalsecurity,socialorder,clean,
reciprocationoffavors).
weexaminethepredictivevalidityofthevaluelexiconbycorre- the values and their structure are slightly different from the ones
lating patterns of individual values, as portrayed in American used in the individual-level value theory. Hence, using the
(U.S.)newspapers,withobjectiveindicatorsofbehaviorthrough- cultural-levelvalueswouldrequiredevelopingavaluelexiconthat
out the 20th century. We note that the reliance on newspapers in reflectsthecontentsoftheculturalvaluedimensions.
the United States alone is necessary given that the value lexicon
was developed using American English. The utility of the value
Rationale for Developing a Value Lexicon
lexicon is illustrated by demonstrating the correspondence be-
tween patterns of individual values as portrayed in American
Theuseofarchivaldatasourcesinempiricalresearchhasbeen
newspapers and major national events. Finally, we discuss the
described as detecting a “cognitive footprint” (e.g., Waller &
potentialapplicationsandlimitationsofthisnewarchivalapproach
Zimbelman, 2003) or obtaining a “cardiogram of an age” (e.g.,
forthestudyofpatternsofindividualvaluesandvalue–behavior
Ricci,2003).Oneofthedefiningattributesofanarchivalapproach
relationsinsocial,organizational,andculturalcontexts.
isitscapacitytoexaminepsychologicalconstructsintimesandin
We rely on Schwartz’s (1992) individual-level value theory to
places where self-report questionnaire data are not available. In-
develop the value lexicon. Although the individual-level value
deed,numerousexamplesexistdocumentingtheutilityofarchival
theoryisusuallyusedtoexamineindividualdifferencesinvalues,
data sources to study psychological processes and outcomes. For
prior research has also used aggregated responses of individual
example, archival research studies have established significant
values to represent national patterns of individual-level values
associationsbetweenthepersonalityofleadersandorganizational
(Schwartz&Bardi,2001;Schwartz&Sagie,2000).Theseaggre-
gatesofindividualindicatorscaninformknowledgeaboutwhatis performance(Peterson,Smith,Martorana,&Owens,2003),archi-
importanttoindividualsatthestudiedtimeandplaceandhowthis val indicators of societal threat and authoritarian attitudes and
corresponds with behavior en masse. Establishing the validity of behaviors (e.g., Doty, Peterson, & Winter, 1991; Peterson &
the value lexicon in this way would advocate its use both for Gerstein, 2005; Sales, 1973), and prediction of various forms of
measuring values of individuals in organizations (including lead- outgroup hostility (Mullen, 2001, 2004; Mullen, Calogero, &
ers) and for measuring individual-level values that organizations Leader,2007).
advocate (e.g., achievement, conformity, self-direction), as was Previous research has also utilized archival indicators to study
donebyBardiandSchwartz(1996)inidentifyingindividual-level values,corroboratingthemwithself-reportsofvalues.Forexam-
valuesincommunistideologicalwritings. ple, Eckhardt and Alcock (1970) identified the values that were
Note, however, that when the research question is focused on central to communism by content analyzing communist texts.
the structure of society, a group, or an organization, it would be Yearslater,BardiandSchwartz(1996)foundevidencethatthese
more appropriate to employ the Schwartz (2004) cultural value valueswereunderstoodascommunistvaluesusingself-reportsin
theory.ThisisbecauseaccordingtoSmithandSchwartz(1997),a teachersamplesinEasternEurope.Moreover,thepersonalimpor-
culture-leveltheoryisusefulforstudyingtheeffectofcultureon tance of these values predicted voting for communist parties. In
thestructureofsocietyorothergroupcharacteristics(e.g.,demo- another study, Schwartz and Ros (1995) identified differences in
graphics, political characteristics). The cultural value theory thevaluesembeddedintheAmericanDeclarationofIndependence
(Schwartz, 2004) is the appropriate theory for such purposes compared with values embedded in the motto of the French rev-
becauseitviewsculturalvaluesasdifferentsolutionstoproblems olution. They found the same differences in values comparing
andchallengesthatfaceallsocieties(e.g.,howtoensurerespon- American and West European teacher samples using self-reports
siblebehaviorofmembersofsociety,determiningtheboundaries of values. Notably, these studies suggest that individual values
betweentheindividualandthecollective,etc.).Hence,acultural embedded in texts can serve as good indicators of values in the
valuetheoryistheoreticallyfocusedonvaluesthathavedeveloped relevant population. The present effort extends previous archival
insocietiesinresponsetosuchsocietalchallenges.Thecontentsof workonvaluesbydevelopinganewapproachtomeasurepatterns
ANARCHIVALAPPROACH 485
ofindividualvaluessystematicallyonthebasisofnaturallanguage behaviors,thenwewouldexpectthesetofvaluewordsrepresent-
use. ing each value to be positively associated with the behavioral
Natural language use provides a reliable and valid indicator of indicator expressing that value in comparison with behavioral
basic personality, cognitive processes, and social processes (Pen- indicatorsthatdonotexpressthatvalue.
nebaker&King,1999;Pennebaker,Mehl,&Niederhoffer,2003).
Consequently,therehavebeenpreviouseffortstodevelopsystem-
Method
aticmethodstoanalyzethecontentofnaturaltexts(e.g.,Kulesa&
Bishop,2006;Pennebaker,Francis,&Booth,2001;Winter,1994).
The Value Lexicon
Recent innovations in the study of associative meaning among
wordsinnaturallanguageusehaveutilizedthebillionsofnatural The process of constructing the value lexicon began with an
languagedocumentsavailableontheInternet(Gulli&Signorini, initial pool of all possible words that reflected each of the 10
2005; Heylighen, 2001; Turney, 2001). Specifically, the associa- values.ThesewordsweredrawnfromtheitemsontheSchwartz
tivelinkagebetweenanyarrayofwordscanbeempiricallydefined (1992) value questionnaire and from the 6th edition of Roget’s
in terms of their lexical co-occurrence.1 The core idea of using InternationalThesaurus(Kipfer,2002)torepresenteachofthe10
lexicalco-occurrencetogaugeassociativestrengthisthat“aword individualvalues.Theaimwastoidentifythreewordsthat,when
ischaracterizedbythecompanythatitkeeps”(Firth,1957,p.11). appearingtogether,wouldrepresenttherelevantvalue.Consistent
For any given construct, a lexicon of words indicative of the with the use of multiple items to measure one value (Schwartz,
construct can be developed. The relative co-occurrence of these 1992; Schwartz & Bardi, 2001), we reasoned that the occurrence
wordsisusedtoindicatethedegreetowhichthesewordsconverge of three words on a single Web page to represent a given value
ontheactivationoftheconstruct. wouldserveasamorereliableindicatoroftheprevalenceofthat
This Internet-based approach for measuring lexical co- value than the occurrence of just one word to represent a given
occurrenceisanimprovementoverextantsetsofwordassociation value.Wechosetousethreewords(ratherthananyothernumber)
norms,whicharelimitedintheirrepresentationoftargetwordsfor asthisisthesmallestnumberofitemsthatmeasureavalueinthe
every construct of interest and rely on restricted samples of par- most recent version of the Schwartz Value Survey (Schwartz,
ticipants to generate the target words (e.g., Moss & Older, 1996; Sagiv & Boehnke, 2000). The set of three words for each value
Palermo&Jenkins,1964).Instead,thisnewapproachreliesonthe were selected in order to maximize the co-occurrence of pairs of
massive lexical corpus on the Internet to determine which words words for the same value while simultaneously minimizing the
actually co-occur in use. Spence and Owens (1990) have shown co-occurrence of pairs of words for different values, as detailed
that indicators of lexical co-occurrence in natural language use below.
renderresultsthatarehighlyconsonantwiththepatternsobtained To narrow down the initial pool of words, we applied several
from word association norms. Similar applications of this basic criteria.First,apreferencewasgiventousethevaluelabelitself
approach have been reported by others (e.g., Fellbaum, 1998; (e.g.,power,security)asoneofthewordstorepresenteachvalue;
Heylighen, 2001). In the original validation of this lexical co- however,thiswasnotalwayspossiblebecausesomeofthesevalue
occurrence approach to measuring psychological constructs, Cal- labelsyieldedprohibitivelylowwordfrequencies(e.g.,universal-
ogero(2007)usedthisapproachtodevelopalexiconofwordsto ism, hedonism). Second, in order to hold part of speech constant
measureindividualdifferencesinthemotivationtoattainoravoid across different values, we considered only nouns. For example,
cognitiveclosure.Goodtoexcellentconvergent,discriminant,and forthevalueHedonism,thenounpleasurewasusedratherthanthe
predictivevalidityweredemonstratedforthisnewlexicalmeasure adjectivepleasing.Third,inordertominimizelexicalambiguity,
of need for cognitive closure across eight studies. The present obviouspolysems(wordshavingmultiplemeaningsdependingon
effortdrewonthislexicalco-occurrenceapproachtodevelopand context) were avoided. For example, the noun practice might be
validate a new measure of individual values to study patterns of appropriateforthevalueTraditionindenotingtherelevantmean-
valuesandvalue–behaviorrelationsovertime. ing of a custom or a habit, but practice could also denote the
irrelevant meaning of a professional office. Finally, the words
Summary of the Aims of the Current Research selected to represent each of the 10 values had to convey the
In this research, the Internet-based approach described above
1Although beyond the scope of this article, there is an obvious reso-
wasutilizedtodevelopalexiconofvaluewordstorepresentthe10
nance between the present approach and latent semantic analysis (LSA;
distinct values comprising Schwartz’s (1992) individual-level e.g.,Deerwester,Dumais,Furnas,Landauer,&Harshman,1990;Landauer
valuetheory.Thisvaluelexiconwassubjectedtotestsofconver- &Dumais,1997;Salton&McGill,1983).Theprimarydifferencebetween
gent, discriminant, and predictive validity. First, if the value lex- thepresentapproachandLSAisthedirectionofconstructionofasemantic
icon represents Schwartz’s 10 values, then the value words com- space:WhereasLSAattemptstodiscoveralowerdimensionalrepresen-
prising the lexicon would be expected to differentially represent tationofasemanticspacefromhigherdimensionalvectorsofcountsof
eachofSchwartz’s10values.Specifically,thesetofvaluewords co-occurrence,thepresentapproachattemptstovalidateahigherdimen-
sionalrepresentationofasemanticspacefromlowerdimensionalvectors
representingeachofthe10valuesshoulddiscriminateamongthe
ofcountsofco-occurrence.Inotherwords,LSAmighthaveattemptedto
10valuesintheirrelativelexicalco-occurrenceinnaturallanguage
distilltheconstellationof10valuesfromann-dimensionaltabulationof
use on the Internet. Second, if the value lexicon represents
the co-occurrences of all value-relevant terms, whereas the present ap-
Schwartz’s 10 values, then the structure of relations among the
proachattemptstoconstructatabulationoftheco-occurrencesofvalue-
values as represented by value words would be expected to be relevant terms that maps onto the constellation of 10 values already
significantly positively correlated with the structure of values establishedfromself-reportquestionnairestudies.SeeTurney(2001)for
measuredbyself-report.Third,ifthevaluelexiconpredictsactual reviewofdifferencesbetweentheseapproaches.
486 BARDI,CALOGERO,ANDMULLEN
meaning of the relevant value when they appeared together. For JP(kindness(cid:2)strength)
example, the word respect does not necessarily reflect Tradition
whenitappearsalone,butitdoesreflectTraditionwhenitispaired (cid:1)(2,360)/[(12,200(cid:3)130,000)/2](cid:1).03.
with the words tradition and custom. The resultant lexicon of 30
If the value lexicon represents Schwartz’s 10 values, then we
valuewordsispresentedinTable2.
expectedthevaluewordsinthelexicontodifferentiallyrepresent
Google represents the largest and most popular search engine
each of Schwartz’s 10 values. Specifically, the mean JP for the
availableontheInternet,andthesearchesoftermsreflectpopular
co-occurrence of pairs of words for the same value should be
usageofthoseterms(Blair,Urland,&Ma,2002).Googlesearches
higherthanthemeanJPfortheco-occurrenceofpairsofwordsfor
all documents, blogs, messages, and Websites to which it has
differentvalues,thusdiscriminatingbetweenthe10valuesintheir
access (e.g., HTML, PDF, Word, Macromedia Flash [SWF],
relative lexical co-occurrence in natural language use. Conver-
spreadsheets, plain text) and computes the number of sites that
gence among the value words representing the same value and
containtheenteredsearchterm(s).Therefore,searcheswerecon-
divergence among the value words representing different values
ductedforthese30wordswiththeGooglesearchengine,restricted
would provide a measure of validity for the 10 distinct values
toWebsitesinEnglishoriginatingfromtheUnitedStates.Each1
representedinthelexicon.
of the 30 words was searched singly to obtain a frequency esti-
It is important to note that the set of three words selected to
mate,referredtoasaGooglehit.Replicatingpreviousresults(see
measureeachvaluearenotnecessarilysynonymsbutratherwere
Blairetal.,2002),thenumberofsingleGooglehitsforeachword
selected to give the best coverage of the value concept. For
exhibited significant correlations with the word frequency esti-
example, the words independence and freedom that measure the
mates from Thorndike and Lorge’s (1944) 60–year-old norms,
r(28) (cid:1) .41, p (cid:1) .01, and Kucera and Francis’s (1967) 40–year- valueSelf-Directionarenotsynonyms.Theyrepresenttwodiffer-
oldnorms,r(28)(cid:1).57,p(cid:1).0005,indicatingthatthenumberof ent aspects of the Self-Direction value in the Schwartz Value
Survey (Schwartz, 1992; see Table 1 above). Thus, their lexical
Google hits for each word is an adequate indicator of word
co-occurrencereflectsthebroadvalueconstructratherthanmerely
frequency. Second, for each of the 10 values, the lexical co-
expressing the same concept with multiple but equivalent terms.
occurrence of word pairs for same and different values was cal-
Thelexicalindicatorsselectedforeachvaluerepresentthebroad
culated in terms of their joint probability. For example, kindness
meaningofthevaluewhentheyappeartogether,inthesameway
andmercyarewordsthatrepresentthesamevalue(Benevolence),
thattheself-reportitemsforeachvaluerepresentthebroadmean-
whereas kindness and strength are words that represent different
ing of the value when averaged together. Because the words that
values(BenevolenceandPower).Searchesweredonesingly(e.g.,
represent the same value are not synonyms, the expectation that
“kindness”) and for every possible pair (e.g., “kindness mercy,”
their lexical co-occurrence will be higher than their lexical co-
“kindnessstrength”).Jointprobability(JP)isdefinedastheratio
occurrencewithwordsthatmeasureothervaluesisnotanobvious
ofthenumberofpairedhits(PH)totheaverageofthenumberof
one. Furthermore, the values represented in the Schwartz (1992)
singlehits(SH;Googlehitsexpressedin1,000s).Toillustrate,the
value theory are interrelated with one another, creating a quasi-
calculationoftheJPfortheco-occurrenceofkindnessandmercy
circumplex (a circle without specified gradients, ordered in the
isrepresentedas:
same way as in the tables of this article) such that each value is
JP(kindness(cid:2)mercy) more positively correlated with adjacent values in the circle and
eachvalueislesspositivelycorrelatedwithnonadjacentvaluesin
(cid:1)(kindness(cid:2)mercyPH)/[(kindnessSH(cid:3)mercySH)/2] the circle. Therefore, the differences between the lexical co-
occurrenceofwordsforthesameanddifferentvalueswouldhave
TheJPfortheco-occurrenceofkindnessandmercy(benevolence)
to be quite robust in order to overcome the additional challenge
is:
presentedbythecircumplexstructureofthevalues.
JP(kindness(cid:2)mercy)
(cid:1)(1,560)/[(12,200(cid:3)21,800)/2](cid:1).09. Convergent and Discriminant Validity of the Value
Lexicon
The JP for the co-occurrence of kindness and strength (Benevo-
lenceandPower)is: In order to test the convergent and discriminant validity of the
valuelexicon,itwasfirstnecessarytoidentifyasourceofpeople’s
Table2 naturallanguageusetowhichwecouldapplythevaluelexiconto
WordsSelectedtoRepresentEachValue:TheValueLexicon measure the 10 values. Newspapers provide a rich, extensive
sourceoflexicaloutputtowhichwecanapplythevaluelexicon.
Value Lexicalindicatorsforeachvalue
Althoughcautioniswarrantedwhenutilizingmediadatabecause
Power power,strength,control of imperfect representativeness (Ortiz, Myers, Walls, & Diaz,
Achievement achievement,ambition,success 2005),thereisevidenceinpreviousstudies,whichusedmethods
Hedonism luxury,pleasure,delight different from our method, that popular textual media in demo-
Stimulation excitement,novelty,thrill
cratic societies largely represent the salient values, opinions, and
Self-direction independence,freedom,liberty
concerns of people. Specifically, in a comparison of newspapers
Universalism unity,justice,equality
Benevolence kindness,charity,mercy that either published all letters to the editor or published only
Tradition tradition,custom,respect selected letters to the editor, individual letter writers to these
Conformity restraint,regard,consideration newspapers did not differ in their support of the Equal Rights
Security security,safety,protection
Amendment (ERA; Hill, 1981). Furthermore, the percentage of
ANARCHIVALAPPROACH 487
supportfortheERAindicatedinpublishedletterstotheeditordid Specifically, in contrast to the value questionnaire (Schwartz,
notsignificantlydifferfromthesupportindicatedinpublicopinion 1992),thevaluelexiconrepresentsanindirectindicatorofvalues,
polls that represent the general population. In addition, Inglis because values are reflected from the co-occurrence of value
(1938)foundthatchangesintheportrayalsofagenticheroinesin words in texts, whereas in value questionnaires values are mea-
TheSaturdayEveningPostfrom1901to1935covariedwith,but sured directly. However, we did expect a positive correlation
didnotprecede,changesingainfulemploymentofwomeninthe betweenthetwopatternsofrelations.
United States. More recently, Adelman and Verbrugge (2000)
observedthatthecoverageofsixprominentdiseasesin34Amer-
Predictive Validity of the Value Lexicon
icannewspapersreflectedsocietaltrendsindiseaseprevalenceand
mortality. These findings indicated that increases in newspaper The term value-expressive behavior refers to behaviors that
coverageofcancerorAIDSreflect,ratherthancause,increasesin
express or promote the attainment of primarily one value as
theprevalenceofthesediseases.2
comparedwithothervalues(Bardi&Schwartz,2003).Forexam-
Therefore,weexaminedtheoccurrenceofindividual-levelval- ple, dominating behaviors primarily express Power values, and
uesinpopularAmericannewspapers.Tobegin,wemeasuredthe pleasure- seeking behaviors primarily express Hedonism values.
prevalence of the value words on newspaper pages. A series of Only one previous study examined relations between Schwartz’s
searcheswasconductedinU.S.newspapersfortheyears1900to 10 values and an array of behaviors that express the 10 values
2000onNewspaperArchive.com,anInternet-basedsearchengine (Bardi & Schwartz, 2003), demonstrating moderate relations be-
withaccesstomillionsofnewspaperpages,fromeightcountries, tweenvaluesandbehaviorswhenbehaviorwasmeasuredbyself-
for the years 1759 to present. First, for each year, the number of and peer-reports. For the purposes of this research, archival indi-
U.S.newspaperpagescontainingallthreeofthewordsforeachof cators that were not derived from responses to self-report ques-
the10valueswastabulated.Itwasreasonedthattheoccurrenceon tionnaires were specifically utilized because they circumvent the
asinglenewspaperpageofallthreewords(e.g.,luxury,pleasure, knownlimitationsoftraditionalself-reportmeasures,spanhistor-
and delight) for a given value (e.g., Hedonism) would serve as a ical periods and contexts, and provide greater ecological validity
more reliable indicator of the prevalence of that value than the for the constructs under investigation. Whereas the indicators
occurrenceofjustoneofthosewords.Second,foreachyear,the utilizedherearepotentiallyfallible,theseindicatorsarenobetter
numberofAmericannewspaperpagescontainingthewordthewas or worse than more traditional data extraction methodologies, as
tabulated in order to provide a baseline of the total number of documented in the extant archival research literature, (e.g., Sim-
newspaper pages printed during that year. This was based on the onton, 2003; Webb, Campbell, Schwartz, Sechrest, & Grove,
assumption that every page of a newspaper in English would 1981). The purpose was to correlate these behavioral indicators
containthewordthe,asweindeedfound.Third,foreachyear,the with value occurrences in newspapers across 101 years (1900–
relative prevalence of each of the 10 values was defined as the 2000).
number of American newspaper pages containing all three of the Each of the behavioral indicators was selected on the basis of
wordsforagivenvaluedividedbythenumberofnewspaperpages several criteria: First, the behavioral indicator needed to be con-
in that year. On the basis of these prevalence figures, it was sistent with the conceptual definition of the value based on the
possible to compute the intercorrelations among the 10 values in Schwartz (1992) value theory. Second, the behavioral indicator
Americannewspaperspagesacross101years. hadtobeconsideredanexpressionofprimarilyonevalue,andnot
To test the convergent and discriminant validity of the value an expression of the other values. Third, the behavioral indicator
lexicon, we compared the lexical occurrence of the 10 values in hadtobeconsideredanexpressionofavaluethatcanvaryinits
popularAmericannewspaperswithself-reportedresponsesofthe frequency of expression over time while retaining functionally
10values.Specifically,weexaminedtheconvergencebetweenthe equivalent meanings across time and social change (Doty, Peter-
intercorrelations among the 10 values in newspapers and the son, & Winter, 1991). Fourth, the behavioral indicator needed to
intercorrelations among the 10 values based on self-report re- bequantifiableinameaningfulwaywithoutdistortingthenature
sponsestotheSchwartzValueSurvey(Schwartz,1992).Bardiand ofthebehaviorexpressed.Finally,thebehavioralindicatorhadto
John (2007) computed intercorrelations among the 10 different providedataformostoralloftheyearsfrom1900to2000.The
values on the basis of the self-report responses of 545 American objective indicators selected to represent the 10 value-expressive
students. The 10 (cid:4) 10 matrix produced by computing the inter- behaviorsaredescribedbelow.
correlations among the 10 different values yields a total of 55 Power. ThevalueofPowerstemsfromthemotivationtoexert
correlations. If the value lexicon serves as an indicator of dominanceoverpeopleandresources(Schwartz,1992).Whenpeople
Schwartz’s(1992)10values,thenthepatternofintercorrelations value Power, they are likely to engage in activities that will enable
among the 10 values reflected in American newspaper pages themtohavedominanceoverothers.Takingpartinmilitaryactionis
shouldconvergewiththepatternofintercorrelationsamongthe10 abehaviorthatenablespeopletopursuetheirPowervaluesbecause
valuesinparticipants’self-reports.Thatis,thegeneralpatternsof theaimofmilitaryactionistoestablishdominanceoverpeopleand/or
relations among the values observed in the 55 correlations ob- resources. Indeed, military cadets valued power much more highly
tained from the lexical co-occurrence of the 10 values in U.S.
newspaper pages should exhibit the same general patterns as
2Ofcourse,value-ladenmessagescanalsoaffectvalues,aswasshown
observedinthe55correlationsobtainedfromU.S.students’self-
regarding the influence of school textbooks on children (McClelland,
reportsofthe10values(Bardi&John,2007).Wedidnotexpect
1961).However,childrenaremoreamenableforvaluechange(see,e.g.,
to find exactly the same structure of relations among the values Bardi & Schwartz, 1996). Although the media is likely to have some
whencomparingthetwopatternsofrelations,astheyrepresented influenceonitsaudience,inademocraticsocietyitismoreplausiblethat
markedly different operationalizations of the Schwartz values. themediareflectswhatisimportanttoitsaudience.
488 BARDI,CALOGERO,ANDMULLEN
than a comparable sample of adults (Lo¨nnqvist, Verkasalo, Bez- ulationvaluesbecausemoviesprovideopportunitiesforexcite-
menova,&Helkama,2007).Wethereforereasonedthatthepercent- mentandarousal.Whenthereisanincreaseddemandtowatch
ageofthepopulationonactivemilitarydutywouldbeoneobjective movies, it is likely that the film industry will respond by
indicatorofbehaviorthatexpressesthevalueofPower.Thatis,the releasingmorefilms.Wethereforereasonedthatthenumberof
greatertheextenttowhichPowervaluesaresalientandimportant,the entertainment films released per capita would be one objective
morepeopleinthepopulationwillenlistinthearmy.Dataforthis indicator of behavior that expresses the value of Stimulation.
objectiveindicatorofbehaviorwereavailablefortheyears1900to Dataforthisindicatorwereavailablefortheyears1900to2000
2000(Kurian,2004).Weexpectedthatincreasesintheprevalenceof (Schmidt, 2006). We expected that increases in the prevalence
PowervaluesinAmericannewspapersduringthisperiodwouldbe of stimulation values in U.S. newspapers during this period
associatedwithincreasesinthepercentageofthepopulationinvolved would be associated with increases in the number of entertain-
inactivemilitarydutyduringthesameperiod.
ment films released per capita during this period.
Achievement. The Achievement value emphasizes demonstrat-
Self-Direction. Thisvalueemphasizesindependenceofthought
ing competence according to social standards of success, and the
and action, and includes the specific values freedom and choosing
pursuitofthesevaluesentailsinvestingtimeandenergyintasksthat
owngoals(Schwartz,1992).WhenpeoplevalueSelf-Direction,they
serve group interests (Schwartz, 1992; Schwartz & Bardi, 2001).
are likely to engage in activities that enable them to demonstrate
WhenpeoplevalueAchievement,theyarelikelytoengageinactiv-
independence of thought and action. Voting in national elections is
itiesthatenablethemtodemonstratecompetenceandsuccess.Indeed,
onebehaviorthatenablespeopletopursuetheirSelf-Directionvalues
Bardi and Schwartz (2003) demonstrated that valuing achievement
becausevotingprovidesanopportunitytodemonstratethefreedomto
wasassociatedwithinvestingtimeandeffortinachievinghighgrades
makeindependentchoices.Wethereforereasonedthatthepercentage
at universities among student samples. Patenting an invention is
ofvoterturnoutforPresidentialandCongressionalelectionswouldbe
anotherbehaviorthatenablespeopletopursueAchievementvalues
oneobjectiveindicatorofbehaviorthatexpressesthevalueofSelf-
because it is an obvious demonstration of competence and success.
Direction.Dataforthisindicatorwereavailablefortheyears1900to
Indeed,priorresearchhasdemonstratedthathigherneedforachieve-
2000 (Woolley & Peters, 2005). We expected that increases in the
mentscores,asmeasuredinU.S.-publishedreadingtextbooks,were
prevalenceofSelf-DirectionvaluesinAmericannewspapersduring
associated with increased patents granted per capita in the United
this period would be associated with increases in the percentage of
Statesfrom1800to1950(deCharms&Moeller,1962).Wetherefore
reasonedthatthenumberofpatentedinventionspercapitawouldbe voterturnoutforPresidentialandCongressionalelectionsduringthis
one objective indicator of behavior that expresses the value of period.
Achievement. Data for this objective indicator of behavior were Universalism. Universalismisaprosocialvaluethatincludesthe
availablefortheyears1900to2000(UnitedStatesPatentandTrade- specificvaluesofsocialjusticeandbroadminded(broadmindedbeing
markOffice,2005.)Weexpectedthatincreasesintheprevalenceof definedastolerance).Thisvalueemphasizesafocusontheprotection
Achievement values in American newspapers during this period ofallothersoutsidetheimmediatein-group(Schwartz,1992).When
wouldbeassociatedwithincreasesinthenumberofpatentedinven- peoplevalueUniversalism,theyarelikelytoengageinactivitiesthat
tionspercapitaduringthesameperiod. enable them to promote social justice and the protection of others.
Hedonism. The value of Hedonism emphasizes gratification of Indeed,instudentsamples,universalismvalueswerecorrelatedwith
self-orientedneedsanddesires,andthepursuitofthesevaluesentails donations made to disadvantaged populations in foreign countries
seeking pleasure and gratification of desires (Schwartz, 1992; (Bardi&Schwartz,2003).Donationstocharitiesisonebehaviorthat
Schwartz & Bardi, 2001). When people value Hedonism, they are enables people to pursue their Universalism values because these
likelytoengageinactivitiesthatenablethemtoexperiencepleasure donations protect the welfare of disadvantaged populations and at-
andgratifynonessentialneeds.Indeed,valuinghedonismwasasso- tempttorectifysocialinjustice.Wethereforereasonedthatthepro-
ciatedwithconsumingfoodordrinksthatthepersonlikes,evenwhen portionoftotalpersonalincomedonatedtotheUnitedWaywouldbe
heorsheisnothungryorthirsty(Bardi&Schwartz,2003).Alcohol oneobjectiveindicatorofbehaviorthatexpressesthevalueofUni-
consumptionisabehaviorthatenablespeopletopursuetheirHedo- versalism.3NotethatthisbehaviorisabetterreflectionofUniversal-
nismvaluesbecausealcoholismostoftenconsumedforpleasureand ismvaluesthanofBenevolencevaluesbecauseoftheemphasison
nottorelievethirst.Wethereforereasonedthatalcoholconsumption
helping people whom one does not know personally and who are
percapitawouldbeoneobjectiveindicatorofbehaviorthatexpresses
outsideone’simmediategroup.Dataforthisindicatorwereavailable
thevalueofHedonism.Dataforthisindicatorwereavailableforthe
for the years 1920 to 1997 (Putnam, 2000). We expected that in-
years1900to2000(NationalInstituteonAlcoholAbuseandAlco-
creasesintheprevalenceofUniversalismvaluesinAmericannews-
holism,2006).WeexpectedthatincreasesintheprevalenceofHe-
papers during this period would be associated with increases in the
donismvaluesinAmericannewspapersduringthisperiodwouldbe
proportionoftotalpersonalincomedonatedtotheUnitedWayduring
associated with increases in the amount of alcohol consumed per
theperiod.
capitaduringthesameperiod.
Stimulation. The value of Stimulation emphasizes the pur-
3UnitedWayisoneofthelargestcharitiesintheUnitedStates,working
suit of opportunities that bring excitement, arousal, and novel
with,forexample,businesses,communitydevelopmentcorporations,vol-
experiences(Schwartz,1992).WhenpeoplevalueStimulation,
untaryassociations,andvariousfaithcommunities(reflectingthespecific
they are likely to engage in activities that enable them to have
universalism value of broadminded) to redress various themes of social
excitingandarousingexperiencesindailylife.Indeed,valuing
injustice.Thesethemesincludepromotingself-sufficiencyandfacilitating
stimulation was associated with the frequency of watching women’s leadership (reflecting the specific universalism value of social
thrillers (Bardi & Schwartz, 2003). Watching entertainment justice). Thus, this large charity is a particularly suitable charity for the
films is one behavior that enables people to pursue their Stim- expressionofuniversalismvalues.
ANARCHIVALAPPROACH 489
Benevolence. The Benevolence value emphasizes a prosocial Security. ThevalueofSecurityemphasizessafetyandstability
motivation to enhance and protect the well-being of people with of society, including maintaining the social order (Schwartz,
whomoneisinfrequentcontact(Schwartz,1992).Itincludesthe 1992). When people value Security, they are likely to engage in
specific values helpful and forgiving. When people value Benev- activitiesthatwillenablethemtohaveand/orprovidesafetyand
olence,theyarelikelytoengageinactivitiesthatwillenablethem security in situations. Employment in security-based occupations
toprotectthewell-beingofpeopleintheirimmediateenvironment. isonebehaviorthatenablespeopletopursuetheirSecurityvalues
Indeed, in student samples, Benevolence values were correlated becauseitinvolvespeopledirectlyinmaintainingthesocialorder.
withhelpingneighbors(Bardi&Schwartz,2003).Decidingnotto Indeed,amongworkersacross32occupations,peoplewhoworkin
deport individuals from the country is one behavior that enables securityoccupationstendedtovaluesecurityhighlyascompared
the pursuit of Benevolence values because it provides an oppor- with people in other occupations (Knafo & Sagiv, 2004). We
tunity to protect and/or help individuals who are portrayed con- therefore reasoned that the percentage of the working population
cretely (with a name, picture, and personal story). We therefore employed as police officers, guards, or public safety officials
reasonedthattheproportionofthepopulationdeportedwouldbe would be one objective indicator of behavior that expresses the
one objective indicator of behavior that expresses the value of value of security. Data for this indicator were available for the
Benevolence (reverse scored). Data for this indicator were avail- years1900to1997(Putnam,2000).Weexpectedthatincreasesin
ablefortheyears1900to2000(Kurian,2004).Weexpectedthat theprevalenceofSecurityvaluesinAmericannewspapersduring
thisperiodwouldbeassociatedwithincreasesinthepercentageof
increases in the prevalence of Benevolence values in American
the working population employed as police, guards, or public
newspapersduringthisperiodwouldbeassociatedwithdecreases
inthepercentageofthepopulationdeportedduringthisperiod.4 safetyofficialsduringthesameperiod.
Tradition. The value of Tradition emphasizes commitment
andacceptanceofthecustomsandideasoftraditionalculturesor Considerations in the Selection of Behavioral Indicators
religions and includes the specific values devout and respect for
Because of the obvious challenges in selecting and finding
tradition(Schwartz,1992).WhenpeoplevalueTradition,theyare
available behavioral indicators for each of the 10 values, it was
likelytoengageinactivitiesthatwillenablethemtodemonstrate
necessary to utilize one behavioral indicator for each value to
theircommitmenttoandrespectfortraditionalcustomsandprac-
maintain consistency and make valid comparisons among the 10
tices. Indeed, valuing tradition was associated with observing
value–behaviorrelations.
traditionalcustomsduringreligiousfestivities(Bardi&Schwartz,
Indeed, the behavioral indicators selected may not be the ideal
2003). Moreover, across religions, valuing tradition was highly
correlated with religiosity (r (cid:1) .54) and frequency of church representations of each value-expressive behavior. Other indicators
attendance(r(cid:1).37;Schwartz&Huismans,1995).Theprevalence mayserveasreasonableapproximationsofthevalue-expressivebe-
haviors as well. For example, it could be argued that alcohol con-
of churches is one indicator that enables people to pursue their
sumption is not the best indicator of Hedonism values. During this
Traditionvaluesbecausethebuildingandprevalenceofchurches
timeperiod,thereweremanyexternalfactorsthatcouldhaveinflu-
demonstrates commitment to traditional customs and religious
enced alcohol consumption (e.g., Prohibition, wars), and therefore
practices.Thegreaterthenumberofpeoplewhoattendchurch,the
people may not have been able to primarily express the value of
greaterthenumberofchurchesneeded.Wethereforereasonedthat
Hedonismbyconsumingalcohol.Analternativereasonableindicator
thenumberofchurchespercapitawouldbeoneobjectiveindicator
couldbetheamountofmoneyortimepeoplespentontheirvacations.
of the expression of the value Tradition. Data for this indicator
However,spendingtimeonavacationwouldalsobeexpectedtobe
were available for the years 1900 to 1977 (Melton, 1977). We
influencedbysimilaranddifferentexternalfactors.Moreimportantly,
expected that increases in the prevalence of Tradition values in
similartootherplausiblealternativeindicators,datafortheamountof
Americannewspapersduringthisperiodwouldbeassociatedwith
timespentonvacationwerenotavailableforthetimeperiodunder
increasesinthenumberofchurchespercapitaduringtheperiod.
investigationhere.
Conformity. ThevalueofConformityemphasizesmaintaining
In addition, some of the indicators selected may seem to be
the status quo, and the pursuit of this value entails restraint of
reasonable expressions of other values. For example, it could be
impulses in order to avoid violations of social norms (Schwartz,
argued that the indicator of Power values (the percentage of the
1992; Schwartz & Bardi, 2001). When people value Conformity,
populationonactivemilitaryduty)couldalsobeanexpressionof
they are likely to engage in activities that will enable them to
Security values. However, the United States was not under con-
adheretosocialnormsandcontributetothestatusquo.Indeed,in
tinuous threat between 1900 and 2000, and therefore the popula-
student samples, Conformity values were correlated with obedi- tion in active military duty would be more likely to vary as a
ence to parents and with avoiding confrontations (Bardi & functionoftheimportanceofdominance(Power)comparedwith
Schwartz,2003).Givingbirthaftergettingmarriedenablespeople theimportanceofsafety(Security).Wemaintainthatanyindicator
to pursue their Conformity values because marriage before chil- of objective behavior will have a particular set of strengths and
dren represents a pervasive social norm in the American culture. weaknesses that may or may not overlap with the strengths and
Wethereforereasonedthatthenumberofunwedbirthspercapita weaknesses of alternative indicators. Notably, a primary purpose
would be one objective (reversed) indicator of behavior that ex- ofthisresearchwastoexaminewhetherthebehavioralindicators
presses the value of Conformity. Data for this indicator were
availablefortheyears1940to2000(Kurian,2004).Weexpected
4It was impossible to find a behavior that could be measured on a
thatincreasesintheprevalenceofConformityvaluesinAmerican
national level that would clearly reflect helping behavior toward people
newspapersduringthisperiodwouldbeassociatedwithdecreases withwhomoneisinfrequentcontact.Hence,weusedthepercentageof
inthenumberofunwedbirthspercapitaduringthesameperiod. populationdeportedasthebestapproximation.
490 BARDI,CALOGERO,ANDMULLEN
we selected do relate to their respective values more than they .93, p (cid:5) .0001,6 demonstrating convergent and discriminant va-
relate to the other values when both variables could plausibly be lidityforthevaluelexicon.
affectedbyothersocietalfactors(e.g.,wars,economiccycles). Asweexpected,thestructureofrelationsamongthevalueselicited
fromthelexicalco-occurrenceofvaluesonnewspaperpageswasnot
Results identical to the structure of self-reported values. Similar to self-
reported values, the intercorrelations among the lexical co-
Lexical Co-occurrence of Value Words in the Value
occurrencesofvaluesdeclineastheybecomemoredistantfromeach
Lexicon otherinthecircle.However,incontrasttoself-reportedvalues,there
is also a slight increase in correlations with opposite values. This
WeexpectedthatifthevaluelexiconrepresentsSchwartz’s10
probablyreflectstheconcurrentuseofantonyms,suchas“getoutof
values,thenthevaluewordswoulddifferentiallyrepresenteachof
yoursafetyzone,havesomeexcitementinlife!”(Securityvs.Stim-
these 10 values in their relative lexical co-occurrence in natural
ulationvalues)oradebatethatpresentsconflictingvalues,suchasthe
language use on the Internet. Table 3 presents the mean JPs of
abortion debate in the United States that confronts Tradition values
pairs of words representing the same value and the mean JPs of
withSelf-Directionvalues.
pairsofwordsrepresentingdifferentvalues(i.e.,onewordrepre-
senting the target value and one word representing a different
value)foreachofthe10values.5Asexpected,themeanJPforthe
Predictive Validity of the Value Lexicon
co-occurrence of pairs of words for the same value, M (cid:1) .09, is
significantlyhigherthanthemeanJPfortheco-occurrenceofpairs BardiandSchwartz(2003)demonstratedmoderate,positivevalue–
of words for different values, M (cid:1) .05, F(1, 53) (cid:1) 12.91, p (cid:5) behaviorcorrelationsbetweenself-reportedvaluesandself-andpeer-
.0004, corresponding to a medium effect size, r (cid:1) .44. This reportsofactualbehaviors.Therefore,weexpectedthesamegeneral
provides stronger support than expected given the nature of the patternsinusingthevaluelexiconandobjectiveindicatorsofvalue-
words and the value structure, as noted in the Method section expressivebehaviors,althoughitisreasonabletoexpectmorerandom
above.However,thereweretwoexceptionstothegeneralpattern variancewitharchivalindicatorsofactualbehaviors.Table4presents
ofresults.TheJPsforAchievementandTraditionsuggestthatthe thecorrelationsbetweentheprevalenceofvaluesinAmericannews-
wordsrepresentingAchievementandTraditionco-occurredsimi-
papersandtheobjectiveindicatorsofbehaviors.Thecorrelationsof
larly with the words representing the other values. We return to
values with their corresponding value-expressive behaviors are pre-
these exceptions in the Discussion. Overall, the value lexicon
sented on the diagonal, in boldface. The mean correlations of the
represents words that can significantly discriminate between
values with their noncorresponding value-expressive behaviors are
Schwartz’svaluesinnaturallanguageuseontheInternet.
presentedonthebottomrow.Asexpected,mostofthecorrelationson
thediagonalaremorepositivethanthecorrelationsonthesamerow
Convergent and Discriminant Validity of the Value andcolumn.Thefewcorrelationsthatdivertfromthispatterncould
Lexicon be attributed to random variance that, as noted above, should be
expectedwitharchivalindicatorsofactualbehavior.Yet,importantly,
If the value lexicon serves as an indicator of individual-level
themeancorrelationforthe10correspondingvalue–behaviorpairs,
valuesasdelineatedbySchwartz(1992),thenthegeneralpatterns
r (cid:1) .56, was much higher than the mean correlation for the 90
observed in the 55 correlations obtained from the lexical co-
noncorrespondingvalue–behaviorpairs,r(cid:1).07.Theeffectsforthe
occurrenceofthe10valuesinAmericannewspaperpagesshould
correspondingandnoncorrespondingvalue–behaviorpairsweresig-
exhibitthesamegeneralpatternsasobservedinthe55correlations
nificantly different, Z (cid:1) 4.80, p (cid:5) .0001, demonstrating that the
obtained from American students’ self-reports of the 10 values
values in American newspapers indicated by the value lexicon are
(Bardi&John,2007).Indeed,theconvergencebetweenthesetwo
very different operationalizations was remarkably high, r(53) (cid:1) stronglyandconsistentlyassociatedwithobjectiveindicatorsoftheir
value-expressivebehaviors.Infact,exceedingexpectations,themean
correlation for the 10 corresponding value–behavior pairs based on
objective indicators of values and behaviors during this 101-year
Table3
periodisstrongerthanthemeancorrelationforthe10corresponding
MeanJointProbabilities(JPs)ofCo-occurrenceAmongWords
value–behavior pairs based on students’ self-reports of values and
intheValueLexicon
behaviorsreportedbyBardiandSchwartz(2003;acrossthreestudies,
r (cid:1) .49). It is also important to note that the correlation between
MeanJPofpairs MeanJPofpairs
ofwords ofwords Power values and the number of people on active military duty
representingthe representing remainedsignificantafterexcludingtheyears1944and1945,which
Value samevalue differentvalues werestatisticaloutliersbecausetheywerethepeakyearsoftheU.S.
military’sactiveparticipationinWorldWarII.Similarly,thecorre-
Power .17 .07
Achievement .06 .05 lationbetweenHedonismvaluesandtheamountofalcoholconsump-
Hedonism .06 .03 tion per capita remained significant after excluding the 13 years of
Stimulation .04 .02 Prohibition.
Self-direction .11 .05
Universalism .07 .05
Benevolence .06 .03 5The complete matrices of 10 (cid:4) 10 correlations of all 10 values
Tradition .05 .06 throughoutthearticleareavailablefromtheauthorsonrequest.
Conformity .11 .05
6All calculations on correlations in this article are performed with
Security .21 .05
Fisher’sZtransformationandbacktransformation.
ANARCHIVALAPPROACH 491
Table4
CorrelationsBetweenValuesandObjectiveIndicatorsofBehaviors
Values
Behavior Self-
(correspondingvalue,df) Power Achievement Hedonism Stimulation direction Universalism Benevolence Tradition Conformity Security
Militaryparticipation
(Power,99) .33 (cid:2).28 (cid:2).26 (cid:2).20 .09 .33 (cid:2).23 (cid:2).26 (cid:2).28 .06
Patentedinventions
(Achievement,99) (cid:2).36 .35 .03 .09 (cid:2).05 (cid:2).20 .28 .11 .25 (cid:2).19
Alcoholconsumption
(Hedonism,99) (cid:2).41 (cid:2).23 .50 (cid:2).75 (cid:2).24 (cid:2).24 .01 (cid:2).09 .10 .24
Moviesreleased
(Stimulation,99) .72 .76 (cid:2).48 .89 .44 .25 .42 .51 .82 (cid:2).17
Votingparticipation(Self-
Direction,99) .54 .32 .12 .15 .57 .32 .44 .39 .49 (cid:2).22
UnitedWaydonations
(Universalism,76) .79 .28 (cid:2).26 .48 .35 .47 .19 .31 .44 (cid:2).17
Deportations(Benevolence,
reversed,99) .41 .48 .14 (cid:2).02 .34 .26 .48 .17 .57 (cid:2).52
Numberofchurches
(Tradition,76) .04 .15 (cid:2).17 .11 .13 (cid:2).09 .17 .09 .14 (cid:2).22
Unwedbirths(Conformity,
reversed,59) .85 .37 (cid:2).07 .58 .36 .45 (cid:2).12 (cid:2).04 .70 (cid:2).47
Policeandguards
employed(Security,96) (cid:2).67 (cid:2).75 .06 (cid:2).41 (cid:2).31 (cid:2).29 (cid:2).57 (cid:2).28 (cid:2).71 .76
Meancorrelationwith
noncorresponding
behaviors .30 .13 (cid:2).11 (cid:2).01 .13 .05 .06 .10 .25 (cid:2).20
Note. Degrees of freedom refer to correlations between values and corresponding value-expressive behaviors. Correlations of values with their
correspondingvalue-expressivebehaviorsareinboldface.
Itisimportanttonotetwoexceptionstothisgeneralpattern.The and troughs, which correspond to major historical events during
JPs for Power and Tradition suggest that the words representing this101-yearperiodinAmerica.Forexample,Stimulationexhibits
Power and Tradition values were similarly associated with corre- adramaticupswingduringthe“RoaringTwenties,”followedbya
spondingandnoncorrespondingvalue-expressivebehaviors.Were- precipitousdownswingatthestartoftheGreatDepression.Secu-
turn to these exceptions in the discussion. Overall, patterns of indi- rityexhibitsadramaticupswingatthebeginningofWorldWarII,
vidualvaluesweresignificantlycorrelatedwiththeirvalue-expressive adramaticdownswingattheconclusionofWorldWarII,thena
behavior and more strongly correlated with their value-expressive
general increase that lasts until the conclusion of the Cold War.
behaviorascomparedwithallotherbehaviors.
This illustration demonstrates the utility of the value lexicon for
Aplausibleconceptualquestionmightbeposed:whethersome
identifyinguniquerelationsbetweenthevaluesandcorresponding
oftheseassociationsbetweenvaluesandbehaviorareactuallyjust
societal changes compared with noncorresponding societal
areflectionofchangesovertime.7Therefore,theanalysesreported
abovewerereplicatedwithregressionanalyses,whereinbehaviors
weresimultaneouslyregressedonbothyearandvaluesinorderto
7Aplausibleanalyticsuggestionmightbethatthesedatashouldmore
determinewhetherthepatternsreportedabovecouldbedismissed
properlybesubjectedtoARIMA(autoregressiveintegratedmovingaver-
asanartifactofchangesovertime.Asexpected,themean(cid:6)forthe age) analyses (e.g., Box & Jenkins, 1976; McDowell, McCleary,
10correspondingvalue–behaviorpairs,(cid:6)(cid:1).33,ishigherthanthe Meidinger,&Hay,1980).ARIMAanalyseswouldallowtheexamination
mean (cid:6) for the 90 noncorresponding value–behavior pairs, (cid:6) (cid:1) ofthepredictionofbehaviorsbyvalueswhiletakingintoaccountcyclical
.02, F(1, 98) (cid:1) 10.34, p (cid:5) .0009, indicating that the value– fluctuations, periodicity, and autoregressive nonindependence in these
behaviorrelationsremainsignificantwhenaccountingforchanges data.Atatheoreticallevel,wewouldbereluctanttotreatanyvariability
overtime.8 indicative of cyclical fluctuations or periodicity as “white noise” to be
filteredoutofthemodel.Forexample,todate,therehasbeennotheoretical
orempiricaldeterminationastowhetherthefluctuationsinvaluesdepicted
An Illustration of the Utility of the Value Lexicon: Value
in Figure 1 represent genuine, meaningful period fluctuations or merely
Patterns in the United States randomnoisetobefilteredout.Atamechanicallevel,thesedatadonot
conform to the requirements of ARIMA modeling. For example, each
TheportrayalofvaluesinAmericannewspapersthroughoutthe
archival indicator of behavior covers a slightly different portion of the
20thcenturyalsocanbeusedtoexaminechangeinvaluesatthe
101-yearperiodbeingexaminedintheseanalyses,andsomeoftheindi-
grouporsocietallevel.Figure1depictsatotalof1,010datapoints catorshavesomemissingvaluesforsomeoftheyearlyincrementsacross
capturing variations in the prevalence of values in American the101-yearperiodbeingexaminedintheseanalyses.
newspapers. Inspection of this figure reveals several interesting 8Zero-ordercorrelationsamongvaluesandyearareavailablefromthe
societalpatterns.Thesevariationsinvaluesexhibitseveralpeaks authorsonrequest.