Justice under Anarchy

255 Pages·2015·2.25 MB·English

by  Andrew Ivory

Justice under Anarchy:

Rawlsian Global Justice with New Zealand as
a Case Study

by Andrew Ivory

A thesis
submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington
in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

Victoria University of Wellington
(2015)
2 | P a ge
P age | 3

Abstract

This thesis makes an innovative argument for global justice by exploring neglected
areas of Rawlsian theory, and using New Zealand as a case study. An enquiry into the
Rawlsian view of domestic justice is included because it acts as a basis for Rawlsian global
justice.
In giving its view of global justice, the thesis argues for a global difference principle
focused on persons. This argument includes an exploration of a neglected aspect of the
principle; how it is constrained by the duty of assistance and the just savings principle. The
thesis will also show that the global difference principle makes demands on developed
nations because they can help realize the principle by improving conditions in developing
nations by using Official Development Assistance (ODA). It is also likely that developed
nations can improve conditions in the developing world by using the international factor of
trade. However, rather than just focusing on this factor, the thesis reasons it is best to use this
factor in tandem with ODA. The thesis also shows that developed nations should provide
ODA by demonstrating how the numerous pledges made by developed nations over the years
regarding ODA amount to promises, and that promises have moral significance.
Before moving on to discuss New Zealand’s ODA programme, the thesis examines
one of Rawls’s international principles of justice, the freedom and independence of peoples
principle, and how it applies to New Zealand. In making an argument for the principle, the
thesis shows how the principle can fit into a global justice framework, and adds to the
literature by showing how the principle should treat small polities. The thesis also assesses
how New Zealand’s history of colonialism has and has not respected the principle. This
history also affects New Zealand’s ODA programme, so much so that one can be justified in
describing this programme as being a relic of this history. This programme will be the subject
of the final topic-based chapter. Previous assessments of the programme have been done with
no, or a limited, normative framework. By this point a detailed Rawlsian normative
framework, along with a picture of ODA’s efficacy, is in place, and is used to analyse the
programme. This analysis includes the policy recommendations of monetarily enlarging the
programme, focusing the programme on the globally least advantaged, and giving more of
the programme’s funds to multilateral agencies
4 | P a ge
5 | P a ge

Contents
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... 3
CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................. 9
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 11
PART 1: RAWLSIAN COSMOPOLITANISM .............................................................................. 23
Chapter 2: Rawls’s Theory and Domestic Model ............................................................................................ 25
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 25
The Focus on Rawls ......................................................................................................................................... 26
Ideal Theory and Nonideal Theory .................................................................................................................. 28
Rawls’s Model ................................................................................................................................................. 30
The Two Moral Powers .................................................................................................................................... 33
Rawls’s Principles of Domestic Justice ............................................................................................................ 37
The Argument for the Selection of Rawls’s Principles .................................................................................... 42
Why should one not argue for a stricter form of egalitarianism? ..................................................................... 48
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 53
Chapter 3: Rawls’s International Model .......................................................................................................... 54
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 55
Introducing Rawls’s Polities ............................................................................................................................ 55
Rawls’s Principles of International Justice ....................................................................................................... 57
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 63
Chapter 4: The Global Difference Principle and its Critics ............................................................................ 65
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 65
The Global Difference Principle and its place in Rawlsian theory................................................................... 67
The Question of Representatives ...................................................................................................................... 72
Human Rights and the Global Difference Principle ......................................................................................... 73
International Reasonable Pluralism .................................................................................................................. 76
Targeting .......................................................................................................................................................... 80
Different Difference Principles ........................................................................................................................ 82
A Global Basic Structure .................................................................................................................................. 84
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 86
Chapter 5: The Global Difference Principle and the Duty of Assistance ...................................................... 89
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 89
Rawls’s Changing View of Inequality ............................................................................................................. 90
Rawls’s Scenarios and Deserved Inequalities .................................................................................................. 92
The Just Savings Principle ............................................................................................................................... 96
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 99
C ont ent s P age | 6

PART 2: REALIZING PRINCIPLES OF GLOBAL JUSTICE .................................................. 101
Chapter 6: Explanatory Nationalism .............................................................................................................. 103
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 103
The Connected Questions of Economic Performance and Well-Orderliness ................................................. 104
The Question of Responsibility ...................................................................................................................... 110
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 113
Chapter 7: The Effectiveness of ODA ............................................................................................................. 115
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 115
Is ODA a Failure or Success?......................................................................................................................... 116
Randomized Evaluations and the Problem of Scaling Up .............................................................................. 121
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 123
Chapter 8: The Effectiveness of Trade ........................................................................................................... 125
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 125
Free Trade ...................................................................................................................................................... 126
Fair Trade ....................................................................................................................................................... 132
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 134
Chapter 9: A Consideration beyond Effectiveness? ODA and Promises .................................................... 135
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 135
A History of Broken Commitments around ODA .......................................................................................... 135
Is this a History of Broken Promises? ............................................................................................................ 140
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 146
PART 3: GLOBAL JUSTICE AND NEW ZEALAND ................................................................ 147
Chapter 10: New Zealand’s History of Colonialism and the Freedom and Independence of Peoples’
Principle............................................................................................................................................................. 149
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 149
The Freedom and Independence of Peoples’ Principle .................................................................................. 150
New Zealand’s History of Colonialism .......................................................................................................... 154
Small Polities and Rawlsian Theory .............................................................................................................. 175
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 182
Chapter 11: New Zealand’s ODA Programme .............................................................................................. 185
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 185
History of New Zealand’s Aid Programme .................................................................................................... 188
Recent Levels of ODA Given ........................................................................................................................ 194
An Ongoing Focus on the Pacific ................................................................................................................... 196
New Zealand’s Country Programmes ............................................................................................................ 197
What Kind of ODA Relationship, if any, should New Zealand have with the Cook Islands, Niue, Samoa, and
Tokelau? ......................................................................................................................................................... 208
New Zealand’s Non-Country Programmes .................................................................................................... 213
New Zealand Public Opinion on ODA ........................................................................................................... 217
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 220
CHAPTER 12: CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 221
ACRONYMS .................................................................................................................................... 225
C ont ent s P age | 7

POLYNESIAN WORDS AND TERMS ........................................................................................ 227
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................... 229
Books: ................................................................................................................................................................ 229
Book Chapters: ................................................................................................................................................. 231
Journal Articles: ............................................................................................................................................... 233
Other Sources: .................................................................................................................................................. 239
Electronic Miscellany ..................................................................................................................................... 239
Electronic Papers ............................................................................................................................................ 240
Foreign Government Publications .................................................................................................................. 241
New Zealand Government Publications ......................................................................................................... 244
Newspaper Articles ........................................................................................................................................ 248
OECD Publications ........................................................................................................................................ 248
Theses ............................................................................................................................................................. 250
United Nations Publications ........................................................................................................................... 250
World Bank Publications ............................................................................................................................... 254
World Trade Organization Publications ......................................................................................................... 255
P age | 8
P age | 9

Acknowledgements

I have a number of people I need to thank. Firstly, I thank my primary supervisor,
Xavier Marquez, for all his comments over the years. I also thank my secondary supervisor,
Ramon Das, for his insightful philosophical view of my topic, and my examiners Dr. David
Reidy, Dr. Stephen Winter, and Dr. Greta Snyder for their thoughtful criticisms. There are
also some family and friends who I need to thank. My mother, Janet Ivory, for proof-reading
numerous drafts; my sister, Susan Ivory, for reading the final draft; and finally my friend and
fellow PhD student, Atsushi Iseki, for much needed moral support.
P age | 10