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Issues in Potable Reuse: The Viability of Augmenting Drinking Water Supplies with Reclaimed Water PDF

279 Pages·1998·5.38 MB·English
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http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6022.html PREFACE i Issues in Potable Reuse The Viability of Augmenting Drinking Water Supplies With Reclaimed Water Committee to Evaluate the Viability of Augmenting Potable Water Supplies With Reclaimed Water Water Science and Technology Board Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources National Research Council NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS Washington, D.C. 1998 Copyright © 2003 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF File provided by the National Academies Press (www.nap.edu) for research purposes are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences. Distribution, posting, or copying is strictly prohibited without written permission of the NAP. Generated for http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6022.html National Academy Press • 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW • Washington, DC 20418 NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance. Support for this project was provided by the American Water Works Association Re- search Foundation, County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County, National Water Research Institute, Phoenix Water Services Department, San Diego County Water Author- ity, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation under grant nos. 1425-6-FG-81-07010 and 1425-6-FG-30- 00740, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under cooperative agreement no. CX 824340- 01-0, and Water Environment Research Foundation. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Issues in potable reuse : the viability of augmenting drinking water supplies with reclaimed water / Committee to Evaluate the Viability of Augmenting Potable Water Supplies With Reclaimed Water, Water Science and Technology Board, Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources, National Research Council. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-309-06416-3 1. Water reuse. 2. Drinking water. I. National Research Council (U.S.). Committee to Evaluate the Viability of Augmenting Potable Water Supplies with Reclaimed Water. TD429 .I84 199 98-19686 363.6’1—ddc21 Issues in Potable Reuse: The Viability of Augmenting Drinking Water Supplies With Reclaimed Water is available from the National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Ave., N.W., Box 285, Washington, D.C. 20418 (1-800-624-6242; http://www.nap.edu). Cover art by Y. David Chung. Chung is a graduate of the Corcoran School of Art in Washington, D.C. He has exhibited his work throughout the country, including at the Whitney Museum in New York, the Washington Project for the Arts in Washington, D.C., and the Williams College Museum of Art in Williamstown, Massachusetts. Copyright 1998 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America Copyright © 2003 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF File provided by the National Academies Press (www.nap.edu) for research purposes are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences. Distribution, posting, or copying is strictly prohibited without written permission of the NAP. Generated for http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6022.html COMMITTEE TO EVALUATE THE VIABILITY OF AUGMENTING POTABLE WATER SUPPLIES WITH RECLAIMED WATER JAMES CROOK, Chair, Black and Veatch, Boston, Massachusetts (from August 1996) RICHARD S. ENGELBRECHT, Chair, University of Illinois, Urbana- Champaign (through August 1996) MARK M. BENJAMIN, University of Washington, Seattle RICHARD J. BULL, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington BRUCE A. FOWLER, University of Maryland, Baltimore HERSCHEL E. GRIFFIN, San Diego State University, California CHARLES N. HAAS, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania CHRISTINE L. MOE, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill JOAN B. ROSE, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg R. RHODES TRUSSELL, Montgomery Watson, Inc., Pasadena, California Editor DAVID A. DOBBS, Montpelier, Vermont Staff JACQUELINE A. MACDONALD, Study Director (from July 1997) GARY D. KRAUSS, Study Director (until July 1997) ELLEN A. DE GUZMAN, Senior Project Assistant iii Copyright © 2003 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF File provided by the National Academies Press (www.nap.edu) for research purposes are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences. Distribution, posting, or copying is strictly prohibited without written permission of the NAP. Generated for http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6022.html WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BOARD HENRY J. VAUX, Jr., Chair, University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Oakland CAROL A. JOHNSTON, Vice-Chair, University of Minnesota, Duluth JOHN S. BOYER, University of Delaware, Lewes JOHN BRISCOE, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. DENISE FORT, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque EVILLE GORHAM, University of Minnesota, St. Paul THOMAS M. HELLMAN, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, New York, New York CHARLES D. D. HOWARD, Charles Howard and Associates, Ltd., Victoria, British Columbia WILLIAM A. JURY, University of California, Riverside WILLIAM M. LEWIS, JR., University of Colorado, Boulder RICHARD G. LUTHY, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania JOHN W. MORRIS, J. W. Morris, Ltd., Arlington, Virginia CHARLES R. O’MELIA, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland REBECCA T. PARKIN, American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C. FRANK W. SCHWARTZ, Ohio State University, Columbus ERIC F. WOOD, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey Staff STEPHEN D. PARKER, Director JACQUELINE A. MACDONALD, Associate Director CHRIS ELFRING, Senior Staff Officer LAURA J. EHLERS, Staff Officer JEFFREY W. JACOBS, Staff Officer M. JEANNE AQUILINO, Administrative Associate MARK GIBSON, Research Assistant ANITA A. HALL, Administrative Assistant ELLEN A. DE GUZMAN, Senior Project Assistant KIMBERLY A. SWARTZ, Project Assistant iv Copyright © 2003 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF File provided by the National Academies Press (www.nap.edu) for research purposes are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences. Distribution, posting, or copying is strictly prohibited without written permission of the NAP. Generated for http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6022.html COMMISSION ON GEOSCIENCES, ENVIRONMENT, AND RESOURCES GEORGE M. HORNBERGER, Chair, University of Virginia, Charlottesville PATRICK R. ATKINS, Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania JERRY F. FRANKLIN, University of Washington, Seattle B. JOHN GARRICK, PLG, Inc., Newport Beach, California THOMAS E. GRAEDEL, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut DEBRA KNOPMAN, Progressive Foundation, Washington, D.C. KAI N. LEE, Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts JUDITH E. MCDOWELL, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts RICHARD A. MESERVE, Covington & Burling, Washington, D.C. HUGH C. MORRIS, Canadian Global Change Program, Delta, British Columbia RAYMOND A. PRICE, Queen’s University at Kingston, Ontario H. RONALD PULLIAM, University of Georgia, Athens THOMAS C. SCHELLING, University of Maryland, College Park VICTORIA J. TSCHINKEL, Landers and Parsons, Tallahassee, Florida E-AN ZEN, University of Maryland, College Park MARY LOU ZOBACK, United States Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California Staff ROBERT M. HAMILTON, Executive Director GREGORY H. SYMMES, Assistant Executive Director JEANETTE SPOON, Administrative and Financial Officer SANDI S. FITZPATRICK, Administrative Associate MARQUITA S. SMITH, Administrative Assistant/Technology Analyst v Copyright © 2003 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF File provided by the National Academies Press (www.nap.edu) for research purposes are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences. Distribution, posting, or copying is strictly prohibited without written permission of the NAP. Generated for http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6022.html The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuat- ing society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineer- ing research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences. The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, un- der the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organi- zation of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering. The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of ap- propriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to iden- tify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine. The National Research Council was organized by the National Acad- emy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with gen- eral policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council. vi Copyright © 2003 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF File provided by the National Academies Press (www.nap.edu) for research purposes are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences. Distribution, posting, or copying is strictly prohibited without written permission of the NAP. Generated for http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6022.html Dedication This book is dedicated to Dr. Richard Engelbrecht, who chaired the Committee to Evaluate the Viability of Augmenting Potable Water Supplies With Reclaimed Water from its inception until September 1, 1996, when he passed away. Dr. Engelbrecht was a pioneer in environmental pollution control, particularly in issues related to water quality management and microbio- logical contamination of drinking water. A dedicated educator, he had been a professor of environmental engineering at the University of Illi- nois since 1954. He was also extremely active in the professional commu- nity, both nationally and internationally. Dr. Engelbrecht was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1976. Dr. Engelbrecht found significant time between his teaching and re- search responsibilities and his professional involvements to volunteer his knowledge and expertise to further the work of the Water Science and Technology Board. A founding member of the board in 1982, Dr. Engelbrecht served on several of its study committees, including the Panel on Water Quality Criteria for Reuse, which in 1982 published the first independent review of potable reuse of reclaimed water. From 1988 until 1990, he chaired a committee that reviewed the U.S. Geological Survey’s National Water Quality Assessment Program. He was a mem- ber of the Committee on Mexico City’s Aquifer from 1992 until 1995 and the Panel on Sustainable Water and Sanitation Services for Megacities in the Developing World from 1995 until 1996. Dr. Engelbrecht will long be remembered as one of the most influen- tial figures in water quality and public health. vii Copyright © 2003 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF File provided by the National Academies Press (www.nap.edu) for research purposes are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences. Distribution, posting, or copying is strictly prohibited without written permission of the NAP. Generated for http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6022.html Copyright © 2003 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF File provided by the National Academies Press (www.nap.edu) for research purposes are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences. Distribution, posting, or copying is strictly prohibited without written permission of the NAP. Generated for http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6022.html Preface The National Research Council (NRC) first provided guidance on potable reuse of reclaimed wastewater in the report Quality Criteria for Water Reuse, developed in 1982 to provide input to an experi- mental program commissioned by Congress to study the wastewater- contaminated Potomac Estuary as a potential new water source for the District of Columbia. That report focused on the scientific questions con- cerning what quality criteria should be applied if a degraded water sup- ply is to be used as a source of drinking water. At the time, only a few communities in the United States—notably Denver, Colorado; Los Ange- les and Orange Counties, California; and Washington, D.C.—were con- sidering water reuse to augment drinking water supplies. The 1982 report produced a number of findings regarding the appli- cation of existing drinking regulations as applied to a reuse situation, the importance of treatment reliability and confirmatory data, and limita- tions concerning the identification, measurement, and long-term health risks from trace organic chemicals. The panel that wrote the report rec- ommended that in the absence of an absolute, ideal water standard, the ability of a water reclamation facility to produce potable water should be judged—chemically, microbiologically, and toxicologically—in compari- son with conventional drinking waters that are presumed to be safe. The panel suggested that all new projects develop an experimental pilot plant facility and recommended comprehensive toxicological testing to evalu- ate the potential health risks of unidentified trace organic chemicals. The report also “strongly endorse[d] the generally accepted concept that drinking water should be obtained from the best quality source avail- ix Copyright © 2003 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF File provided by the National Academies Press (www.nap.edu) for research purposes are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences. Distribution, posting, or copying is strictly prohibited without written permission of the NAP. Generated for http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6022.html x PREFACE able” and noted that “U.S. drinking water regulations were not estab- lished to judge the suitability of raw water supplies heavily contami- nated with municipal and industrial wastewater.” The report suggested that planners should consider “the much greater probability that ad- equately safe [reclaimed] water could be provided for short-term emer- gencies rather than for long-term use.” Since then, a number of factors have changed the way people think about drinking water and wastewater. The demand for water in some parts of the country is now so great that the best available sources have already been developed to their maximum extent, forcing municipalities to consider ways to creatively and inexpensively augment drinking wa- ter supplies. In addition, changes in water and wastewater treatment technologies have occurred since 1982, with advanced technologies such as advanced-oxidation (including ozone), membrane, and biofilm pro- cesses seeing increasing use in the United States and Europe. Finally, several public health concerns have surfaced over drinking water in gen- eral, and these concerns may affect the use of reclaimed water for drink- ing purposes. These include the control of Cryptosporidium and other potentially dangerous human pathogens, increased awareness of the po- tential dangers of disinfection by-products and other unidentified trace organic chemicals, and the problem of biological instability of wastewa- ters. When degraded water from whatever source is used, such issues complicate the challenge of meeting acceptable quality standards and ensuring that the water maintains its quality during distribution. Since the 1982 NRC report, studies on the health implications of us- ing reclaimed water for potable purposes have been completed at a num- ber of projects in the United States. Many of the projects have used a comparative approach, testing both reclaimed and conventional drinking water sources. More advanced methods have been developed and tested for identifying organic chemicals and microbiological agents in reclaimed water, and some have involved whole-animal toxicological studies. A series of epidemiological studies was completed in Los Angeles County, where indirect potable reuse through ground water recharge has been practiced since 1962. None of the studies detected significant effects from chemical toxicants or infectious disease agents; all found the quality of highly treated reclaimed water as good as or better than the current drink- ing water sources for most or all measures of physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters. However, limitations in methodology and testing have prevented many within the scientific and technical community from issuing abso- lute statements that planned potable reuse carries no adverse health-ef- fect implications. Opponents of the use of reclaimed water for potable use point out that communities involved in the practice are subject only Copyright © 2003 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Unless otherwise indicated, all materials in this PDF File provided by the National Academies Press (www.nap.edu) for research purposes are copyrighted by the National Academy of Sciences. Distribution, posting, or copying is strictly prohibited without written permission of the NAP. Generated for

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